Screening for Viral Nucleic Acids in the Cerebrospinal Fluid of Dogs With Central Nervous System Inflammation.

Central nervous system (CNS) inflammation is a common cause of neurological dysfunction in dogs. Most dogs with CNS inflammation are diagnosed with presumptive autoimmune disease. A smaller number are diagnosed with an infectious etiology. Additionally, at necropsy, a subset of dogs with CNS inflammation do not fit previously described patterns of autoimmune disease and an infectious cause is not readily identifiable. Because viral infection is a common cause of meningoencephalitis in people, we hypothesize that a subset of dogs presented with CNS inflammation have an occult viral infection either as a direct cause of CNS inflammation or a trigger for autoimmunity. The goal of this research was to screen cerebrospinal fluid from a large number dogs with CNS inflammation for occult viral infection. One hundred seventy-two dogs with neurological dysfunction and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) pleocytosis were identified. Of these, 42 had meningoencephalitis of unknown origin, six had steroid-responsive meningitis-arteritis, one had eosinophilic meningoencephalitis, five had documented infection, 21 had and undetermined diagnosis, and 97 had a diagnosis not consistent with primary inflammatory disease of the CNS (e.g., neoplasia). CSF samples were subsequently screened with broadly reactive PCR for eight viral groups: adenovirus, bunyavirus, coronavirus, enterovirus, flavivirus, herpesvirus, paramyxovirus, and parechovirus. No viral nucleic acids were detected from 168 cases screened for eight viral groups, which does not support occult viral infection as a cause of CNS inflammation in dogs. La Crosse virus (LACV) nucleic acids were detected from four cases in Georgia. Subclinical infection was supported in two of these cases but LACV could not be ruled-out as a cause of infection in the other two cases, suggesting further research is warranted to determine if LACV is an occult cause of CNS inflammation in dogs.

Circulating neutrophil activation in dogs with naturally occurring spinal cord injury secondary to intervertebral disk herniation.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the time course of circulating neutrophil priming and activity in dogs with spinal cord injury secondary to intervertebral disk herniation that undergo decompressive surgery. ANIMALS: 9 dogs with spinal cord injury and 9 healthy dogs (controls). PROCEDURES: For dogs with spinal cord injury, blood samples were collected on the day of hospital admission and 3, 7, 30, and 90 days after injury and decompressive surgery. A single blood sample was collected from the control dogs. Flow cytometry analysis was performed on isolated neutrophils incubated with antibody against CD11b and nonfluorescent dihydrorhodamine 123, which was converted to fluorescent rhodamine 123 to measure oxidative burst activity. RESULTS: Expression of CD11b was increased in dogs with spinal cord injury 3 days after injury and decompressive surgery, relative to day 7 expression. Neutrophils expressed high oxidative burst activity both 3 and 7 days after injury and decompressive surgery, compared with activity in healthy dogs. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: For dogs with spinal cord injury, high CD11b expression 3 days after injury and decompressive surgery was consistent with findings for rodents with experimentally induced spinal cord injury. However, the high oxidative burst activity 3 and 7 days after injury and decompressive surgery was not consistent with data from other species, and additional studies on inflammatory events in dogs with naturally occurring spinal cord injury are needed.

Abdominal ultrasound and clinicopathologic findings in 22 cats with exocrine pancreatic insufficiency.

BACKGROUND: Awareness of exocrine pancreatic insufficiency (EPI) in cats has increased since the development of an assay for feline trypsin-like immunoreactivity (fTLI). Ultrasound findings in cats with EPI have only been reported rarely and described as nonspecific. HYPOTHESIS/OBJECTIVES: To describe the ultrasonographic findings, clinical signs, and concurrent diseases in cats with EPI. ANIMALS: Twenty-two client-owned cats with EPI. METHODS: Multicenter retrospective descriptive study including cats with serum fTLI concentration ≤8 µg/L and an abdominal ultrasound examination performed within 6 weeks of fTLI measurement. Sonographic measurements of maximal pancreatic thickness and maximal pancreatic duct diameter as well as ratios of pancreatic duct diameter to pancreatic thickness were obtained. Additional sonographic findings, concurrent conditions, and clinical signs were recorded. RESULTS: The most common clinical sign was weight loss (15/22 cats). Chronic enteropathy was the most common concurrent disease (13/22 cats). In 39% of cats, the pancreas had minimal or no sonographic alterations. Pancreatic duct dilatation (>2.5 mm), pancreatic duct tortuosity with variable diameter, or both were seen in 6/13 cats. The pancreatic parenchyma was subjectively thin in 6 cats. A significant relationship was found between subjectively thin pancreatic parenchyma and increased pancreatic duct size : pancreatic thickness ratio (P = .004). Diffuse gastrointestinal dilatation with echogenic content was observed in 8/22 cats. CONCLUSION: Exocrine pancreatic insufficiency often causes minimal to no sonographic pancreatic changes. Nonetheless, the findings of thin pancreatic parenchyma, pancreatic duct dilatation, or diffuse small intestinal dilatation with echogenic contents in cats with unexplained weight loss or unformed feces should raise clinical suspicion for EPI.

Preparation Technique Affects Recipient Immune Targeting of Autologous Mesenchymal Stem Cells.

Fetal bovine serum (FBS) is used for MSC preparation in pre-clinical animal models and veterinary applications, recently in US clinical trials, and for MSC products with current foreign market authorizations. The effect of anti-bovine titers, which are common in animals and humans, has not been investigated. In the equine model, where anti-bovine titers are universally high due to routine vaccination, we evaluated the recipient immune response to autologous MSCs prepared with and without FBS. Preparation of MSCs with FBS resulted in post injection inflammation and antibody mediated cytotoxicity of MSCs when compared to MSCs prepared without FBS. Importantly, synovial MSC concentrations were reduced and LPS induced pain was higher, when FBS was used to prepare MSCs, demonstrating reduced efficacy of FBS prepared MSCs. Fetal bovine serum should no longer be utilized for MSC preparation in pre-clinical study, clinical study, or veterinary applications. The use of FBS in previously reported studies, and in MSC therapeutics with current foreign market authorization, should be considered when interpreting results.

Cross-matching of allogeneic mesenchymal stromal cells eliminates recipient immune targeting.

Allogeneic mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) have been used clinically for decades, without cross-matching, on the assumption that they are immune-privileged. In the equine model, we demonstrate innate and adaptive immune responses after repeated intra-articular injection with major histocompatibility complex (MHC) mismatched allogeneic MSCs, but not MHC matched allogeneic or autologous MSCs. We document increased peri-articular edema and synovial effusion, increased synovial cytokine and chemokine concentrations, and development of donor-specific antibodies in mismatched recipients compared with recipients receiving matched allogeneic or autologous MSCs. Importantly, in matched allogeneic and autologous recipients, but not mismatched allogeneic recipients, there was increased stromal derived factor-1 along with increased MSC concentrations in synovial fluid. Until immune recognition of MSCs can be avoided, repeated clinical use of MSCs should be limited to autologous or cross-matched allogeneic MSCs. When non-cross-matched allogeneic MSCs are used in single MSC dose applications, presensitization against donor MHC should be assessed.

Development of a Canine Rigid Body Musculoskeletal Computer Model to Evaluate Gait.

BACKGROUND: Kinematic and kinetic analysis have been used to gain an understanding of canine movement and joint loading during gait. By non-invasively predicting muscle activation patterns and forces during gait, musculoskeletal models can further our understanding of normal variability and muscle activation patterns and force profiles characteristic of gait. METHODS: Pelvic limb kinematics and kinetics were measured for a 2 year old healthy female Dachshund (5.4 kg) during gait using 3-D motion capture and force platforms. A computed tomography scan was conducted to acquire pelvis and pelvic limb morphology. Using the OpenSim modeling platform, a bilateral pelvic limb subject-specific rigid body musculoskeletal computer model was developed. This model predicted muscle activation patterns, muscle forces, and angular kinematics and joint moments during walking. RESULTS: Gait kinematics determined from motion capture matched those predicted by the model, verifying model accuracy. Primary muscles involved in generating joint moments during stance and swing were predicted by the model: at mid-stance the adductor magnus et brevis (peak activation 53.2%, peak force 64.7 N) extended the hip, and stifle flexor muscles (biceps femoris tibial and calcaneal portions) flexed the stifle. Countering vertical ground reaction forces, the iliopsoas (peak activation 37.9%, peak force 68.7 N) stabilized the hip in mid-stance, while the biceps femoris patellar portion stabilized the stifle in mid-stance and the plantar flexors (gastrocnemius and flexor digitorum muscles) stabilized the tarsal joint during early stance. Transitioning to swing, the iliopsoas, rectus femoris and tensor fascia lata flexed the hip, while in late swing the adductor magnus et brevis impeded further flexion as biceps femoris tibial and calcaneal portions stabilized the stifle for ground contact. CONCLUSION: The musculoskeletal computer model accurately replicated experimental canine angular kinematics associated with gait and was used to predict muscle activation patterns and forces. Thus, musculoskeletal modeling allows for quantification of measures such as muscle forces that are difficult or impossible to measure in vivo.

Evaluation of a low-technology system to obtain morphological and mobility trial measurements in dogs and investigation of potential predictors of canine mobility.

OBJECTIVE: To develop a low-technology system that can be used by dog owners to obtain morphological and mobility measurements in companion dogs as candidate components of an eventual canine frailty scale. ANIMALS: 57 adult (≥ 1-year-old) dogs enrolled by 43 owners. PROCEDURES: Morphological measurements of dogs were performed by investigators and dog owners. Dogs participated in timed in-clinic mobility trials across a flat surface (on-leash trial with the owner, on-leash trial with the investigator, and off-leash trial) and on stairs; each trial was repeated 3 times. Owners were asked to conduct a second stair trial at home 2 weeks later. Agreement between owner- and investigator-obtained measurements was assessed with Shrout-Fleiss intraclass correlation coefficients and paired t tests. Age, quartile of projected percentage of mean life span attained (adjusted for body weight), and height were evaluated as predictors of speed and stride length in mobility trials with linear regression and Spearman rank correlation analysis. RESULTS: Agreement between owner- and investigator-obtained morphological measurements was strong. Age was a weak but significant predictor of decreased dog speed in mobility trials (adjusted R2, 0.10 to 0.23). Speed decreased significantly with increasing quartile of projected life span attained. A linear regression model that included height and age predicted dog speed better than models with age or height alone. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Morphological and mobility trial measurements can be obtained by dog owners with minimal training. Low-technology measurements of mobility trial speed offer potential as components in a future scoring scale for canine frailty.

Gastrointestinal pythiosis with concurrent presumptive gastrointestinal basidiobolomycosis in a Boxer dog.

A 2-year-old female spayed Boxer dog was presented for a 1-month history of progressive hemorrhagic diarrhea with tenesmus and weight loss despite trial courses of antibiotics and diet change. Abdominal ultrasound revealed severe, focal thickening, and loss of normal architecture of the colonic wall with abdominal lymphadenomegaly. Dry-mount fecal cytology, performed on several consecutive days, consistently revealed numerous, round, 16-20 µm structures with basophilic, granular content, and a thin cell wall. Transmission electron microscopy identified these structures as fungi. Culture, polymerase chain reaction (PCR), and sequencing of the internal transcribed spacer, D1/D2 regions, and DNA-directed RNA polymerase II core subunit (RPB2) confirmed the presence of Basidiobolus microsporus in the feces. Biopsies collected via ileocolonoscopy revealed marked, multifocal, chronic, neutrophilic, and eosinophilic ileitis and colitis with ulceration, granulation tissue, and intralesional hyphae (identified with Gomori methenamine silver stain). A Pythium enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and Pythium-specific PCR performed on the formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded biopsy specimens were positive while Basidiobolus-specific PCR was negative, thus confirming a diagnosis of pythiosis. This report describes a fatal case of colonic and intestinal pythiosis with the presence of fecal Basidiobolus sp. spores, suggestive of concurrent gastrointestinal basidiobolomycosis.

Early Blockade of Matrix Metalloproteinases in Spinal-Cord-Injured Dogs Results in a Long-Term Increase in Bladder Compliance.

Spinal cord injury (SCI) is often accompanied by reduced bladder compliance, which contributes to adverse conditions including urinary tract infections and vesicoureteral reflux. Reduced compliance is, in part, attributed to extensive remodeling of the bladder wall, including the extracellular matrix (ECM). Here, we tested the hypothesis that blockade of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), known for their ability to remodel the ECM, improves bladder compliance in dogs with SCI. We first evaluated dogs with naturally occurring SCIs resulting from intervertebral disc herniation (IVDH). After characterizing the natural history of urological recovery by cystometry in healthy dogs (n = 10) and dogs with SCIs (n = 20), we conducted a randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled clinical trial in dogs with IVDH-associated SCIs to assess the efficacy of the broad-spectrum MMP inhibitor, GM6001, given within 48 h post-injury. The primary outcomes were bladder compliance, as measured by cystometry, and an ordinal gait score (Texas Spinal Cord Injury Score; TSCIS) at day 42 post-SCI. Dogs (n = 93) were randomized to receive either dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) or GM6001+DMSO. There were transient, but significantly (p = 0.023) greater, adverse events (31 of 42; 74%) in the GM6001-treated group relative to vehicle controls (22 of 46; 48%). Whereas there were no differences in TSCIS between treatment groups at day 42 (p = 0.9679), bladder compliance was significantly higher in dogs treated with GM6001+DMSO compared to controls (p = 0.0272). Further studies are needed to determine whether this inhibition results from a direct interaction with the bladder wall or indirectly through neural-based mechanisms.

Repeated intra-articular injection of allogeneic mesenchymal stem cells causes an adverse response compared to autologous cells in the equine model.

BACKGROUND: Intra-articular injection of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) is efficacious in osteoarthritis therapy. A direct comparison of the response of the synovial joint to intra-articular injection of autologous versus allogeneic MSCs has not been performed. The objective of this study was to assess the clinical response to repeated intra-articular injection of allogeneic versus autologous MSCs prepared in a way to minimize xeno-contaminants in a large animal model. METHODS: Intra-articular injections of bone marrow-derived, culture-expanded MSCs to a forelimb metacarpophalangeal joint were performed at week 0 and week 4 (six autologous; six autologous with xeno-contamination; six allogeneic). In the week following each injection, clinical and synovial cytology evaluations were performed. RESULTS: Following the first intra-articular injection, there were no differences in clinical parameters over time. Following the second intra-articular injection, there was a significant adverse response of the joint to allogeneic MSCs and autologous MSCs with xeno-contamination with elevated synovial total nucleated cell counts. There was also significantly increased pain from joints injected with autologous MSCs with xeno-contamination. CONCLUSIONS: Repeated intra-articular injection of allogeneic MSCs results in an adverse clinical response, suggesting there is immune recognition of allogeneic MSCs upon a second exposure.

Arachidonic acid pathway alterations in cerebrospinal fluid of dogs with naturally occurring spinal cord injury.

BACKGROUND: Canine intervertebral disc πherniation causes a naturally-occurring spinal cord injury (SCI) that bears critical similarities to human SCI with respect to both injury pathomechanisms and treatment. As such, it has tremendous potential to enhance our understanding of injury biology and the preclinical evaluation of novel therapies. Currently, there is limited understanding of the role of arachidonic acid metabolites in canine SCI. RESULTS: The CSF concentrations of PLA2 and PGE2 were higher in SCI dogs compared to control dogs (p = 0.0370 and 0.0273, respectively), but CSF LCT4 concentration in SCI dogs was significantly lower than that in control dogs (p < 0.0001). Prostaglandin E2 concentration in the CSF was significantly and positively associated with increased severity of SCI at the time of sampling (p = 0.041) and recovery 42 days post-injury (p = 0.006), as measured by ordinal behavioral scores. CONCLUSION: Arachidonic acid metabolism is altered in dogs with SCI, and these data suggest that these AA metabolites reflect injury severity and recovery, paralleling data from other model systems.

Electrolyte and acid/base changes in dogs undergoing autologous blood transfusion via a cell salvage device.

This study reports electrolyte and acid/base disturbances observed in clinical cases receiving autologous transfusion of blood processed by a cell salvage device. The records of 12 client-owned dogs that received an autologous transfusion via a cell salvage device with pre- and post-autologous transfusion blood work available were reviewed. Blood work from the 12 case dogs was compared to blood work from 12 control dogs with similar diseases. Control dogs received similar surgical treatment and were administered a similar volume per kg of packed red blood cells as case dogs, but did not undergo autologous transfusion. Case dogs that received autologous transfusion via a cell salvage device were significantly more likely to experience a decrease in ionized calcium and magnesium levels post-transfusion than were control dogs. Calcium and magnesium levels should be closely monitored during and after autologous transfusion. Calcium and/or magnesium supplementation may be required.

Changements électrolytiques et acido-basiques chez les chiens subissant une transfusion sanguine autologue à l'aide d'un dispositif de récupération des cellules. Cette étude signale les perturbations électrolytiques et acido-basiques observées dans des cas cliniques recevant une transfusion de sang autologue traitée à l'aide d'un dispositif de récupération des cellules. On a évalué les dossiers de 12 chiens, appartenant à des propriétaires, qui avaient reçu une transfusion autologue à l'aide d'un dispositif de récupération des cellules et avaient subi des analyses sanguines avant et après la transfusion autologue. Les analyses sanguines des 12 chiens ont été comparées aux analyses de 12 chiens témoins atteints de maladies semblables. Les chiens témoins ont reçu des traitements chirurgicaux semblables et un volume semblable par kg de concentré de globules rouges que les chiens du cas, mais n'ont pas subi la transfusion autologue. Il était significativement plus probable que les chiens du cas qui avaient reçu une transfusion autologue à l'aide d'un dispositif de récupération des cellules subissent une baisse du niveau de calcium ionisé et de magnésium après la transfusion que les chiens témoins. Le niveau de calcium et de magnésium devrait être étroitement surveillé durant et après la transfusion autologue. Des suppléments de calcium et/ou de magnésium pourront être requis.(Traduit par Isabelle Vallières).

Acute Phase Proteins in Cerebrospinal Fluid from Dogs with Naturally-Occurring Spinal Cord Injury.

Spinal cord injury (SCI) affects thousands of people each year and there are no treatments that dramatically improve clinical outcome. Canine intervertebral disc herniation is a naturally-occurring SCI that has similarities to human injury and can be used as a translational model for evaluating therapeutic interventions. Here, we characterized cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) acute phase proteins (APPs) that have altered expression across a spectrum of neurological disorders, using this canine model system. The concentrations of C-reactive protein (CRP), haptoglobin (Hp), alpha-1-glycoprotein, and serum amyloid A were determined in the CSF of 42 acutely injured dogs, compared with 21 healthy control dogs. Concentrations of APPs also were examined with respect to initial injury severity and motor outcome 42 d post-injury. Hp concentration was significantly higher (p<0.0001) in the CSF of affected dogs, compared with healthy control dogs. Additionally, the concentrations of CRP and Hp were significantly (p=0.0001 and p=0.0079, respectively) and positively associated with CSF total protein concentration. The concentrations of CRP and Hp were significantly higher (p=0.0071 and p=0.0197, respectively) in dogs with severe injury, compared with those with mild-to-moderate SCI, but there was no significant correlation between assessed CSF APP concentrations and 42 d motor outcome. This study demonstrated that CSF APPs were dysregulated in dogs with naturally-occurring SCI and could be used as markers for SCI severity. As Hp was increased following severe SCI and is neuroprotective across a number of model systems, it may represent a viable therapeutic target.

Relationships between cerebrospinal fluid characteristics, injury severity, and functional outcome in dogs with and without intervertebral disk herniation.

BACKGROUND: Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is commonly acquired in dogs with intervertebral disk herniation (IVDH) and is a common method to assess inflammatory responses following spinal cord injury (SCI). OBJECTIVES: The purpose of the study was to describe relationships between cisternal CSF characteristics, behavioral measures of SCI, T2- weighted (T2W) hyperintensity on magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and long-term outcome in dogs with IVDH. Diagnostic accuracy of CSF for differentiating IVDH from other myelopathies was also assessed. METHODS: The retrospective case series included 727 dogs, 443 with thoracolumbar IVDH, 103 with cervical IVDH, and 181 with other spinal cord diseases. Signalment, initial neurologic function, ambulatory function at long-term follow-up, T2W MRI, and CSF variables were recorded for dogs with IVDH. Signalment, etiology, and CSF data were retrieved for dogs with other myelopathies. Associations between CSF predictors, diagnosis, and outcomes were assessed. RESULTS: CSF total nucleated cell count (TNCC) increased with SCI severity (rho -0.256, P < .001) in dogs with IVDH, TNCC was significantly higher in the presence of T2W hyperintensity (P = .001) in dogs with thoracolumbar IVDH, but TNCC, RBC count, microprotein, and percent neutrophils decreased with increasing injury duration (rho -0.253, P < .001; rho -0.269, P < .001; rho -0.141, P = .004, and rho -0.356, P < .001, respectively). CSF characteristics were not accurate for differentiating IVDH from other spinal cord diseases. CONCLUSIONS: In dogs with IVDH, CSF TNCC, RBC count, microprotein, and percent neutrophils are correlated with clinical aspects of SCI such as injury severity and duration, but cannot differentiate IVDH from other etiologies.

Efficacy of a metalloproteinase inhibitor in spinal cord injured dogs.

Matrix metalloproteinase-9 is elevated within the acutely injured murine spinal cord and blockade of this early proteolytic activity with GM6001, a broad-spectrum matrix metalloproteinase inhibitor, results in improved recovery after spinal cord injury. As matrix metalloproteinase-9 is likewise acutely elevated in dogs with naturally occurring spinal cord injuries, we evaluated efficacy of GM6001 solubilized in dimethyl sulfoxide in this second species. Safety and pharmacokinetic studies were conducted in naïve dogs. After confirming safety, subsequent pharmacokinetic analyses demonstrated that a 100 mg/kg subcutaneous dose of GM6001 resulted in plasma concentrations that peaked shortly after administration and were sustained for at least 4 days at levels that produced robust in vitro inhibition of matrix metalloproteinase-9. A randomized, blinded, placebo-controlled study was then conducted to assess efficacy of GM6001 given within 48 hours of spinal cord injury. Dogs were enrolled in 3 groups: GM6001 dissolved in dimethyl sulfoxide (n = 35), dimethyl sulfoxide (n = 37), or saline (n = 41). Matrix metalloproteinase activity was increased in the serum of injured dogs and GM6001 reduced this serum protease activity compared to the other two groups. To assess recovery, dogs were a priori stratified into a severely injured group and a mild-to-moderate injured group, using a Modified Frankel Scale. The Texas Spinal Cord Injury Score was then used to assess long-term motor/sensory function. In dogs with severe spinal cord injuries, those treated with saline had a mean motor score of 2 (95% CI 0-4.0) that was significantly (P<0.05; generalized linear model) less than the estimated mean motor score for dogs receiving dimethyl sulfoxide (mean, 5; 95% CI 2.0-8.0) or GM6001 (mean, 5; 95% CI 2.0-8.0). As there was no independent effect of GM6001, we attribute improved neurological outcomes to dimethyl sulfoxide, a pleotropic agent that may target diverse secondary pathogenic events that emerge in the acutely injured cord.

Cerebrospinal fluid inflammatory cytokines and chemokines in naturally occurring canine spinal cord injury.

Canine intervertebral disk herniation (IVDH) is a common, naturally occurring form of spinal cord injury (SCI) that is increasingly being used in pre-clinical evaluation of therapies. Although IVDH bears critical similarities to human SCI with respect to lesion morphology, imaging features, and post-SCI treatment, limited data are available concerning secondary injury mechanisms. Here, we characterized cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) cytokines, and chemokines in dogs with acute, surgically treated, thoracolumbar IVDH (n=39) and healthy control dogs (n=21) to investigate early inflammatory events after SCI. A bioplex system was used to measure interleukin (IL)-2, -6, -7, -8, -10, -15, and -18, granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF), interferon gamma (IFN-γ), keratinocyte chemoattractant (KC)-like protein, IFN-γ-inducible protein-10, monocyte chemotactic protein 1 (MCP-1), and tumor necrosis factor alpha. Cytokine and chemokine concentrations in the CSF of healthy and SCI dogs were compared and, in SCI dogs, were correlated to the duration of SCI, behavioral measures of injury severity at the time of sampling, and neurological outcome 42 days post-SCI as determined by a validated ordinal score. IL-8 concentration was significantly higher in SCI cases than healthy controls (p=0.0013) and was negatively correlated with the duration of SCI (p=0.042). CSF MCP-1 and KC-like protein were positively correlated with CSF microprotein concentration in dogs with SCI (p<0.0001 and p=0.004). CSF MCP-1 concentration was negatively associated with 42-day postinjury outcome (p<0.0001). Taken together, these data indicate that cytokines and chemokines present after SCI in humans and rodent models are associated with SCI pathogenesis in canine IVDH.

Associations between cerebrospinal fluid biomarkers and long-term neurologic outcome in dogs with acute intervertebral disk herniation.

OBJECTIVE: To examine associations between CSF biomarkers, initial neurologic dysfunction, and long-term ambulatory outcome in dogs with acute intervertebral disk herniation (IVDH). DESIGN: Prospective clinical study. ANIMALS: 54 dogs with acute thoracolumbar IVDH and 16 clinically normal dogs. PROCEDURES: For each dog, variables, including CSF myelin basic protein (MBP), lactate, calcium, glucose, and total protein concentrations; nucleated cell count; and creatine kinase (CK) and aspartate aminotransferase activities, were measured. For dogs with thoracolumbar IVDH, initial neurologic function was characterized by use of a modified Frankel score (MFS; determined on a scale of 0 to 5, where 0 represented paraplegia with no deep nociception and 5 represented paraspinal hyperesthesia only). Long-term follow-up was assessed. RESULTS: Among dogs with thoracolumbar IVDH, those with CSF CK activity ≤ 38 U/L had a 35-fold increase in the odds of long-term ambulation, compared with the odds in dogs with CSF CK activity > 38 U/L, adjusting for neurologic functioning at the evaluation. The CSF lactate, calcium, and glucose concentrations and aspartate aminotransferase activity were not predictive of long-term ambulatory outcome. Data analysis revealed that long-term functional recovery was > 98% for affected dogs, regardless of their initial MFS, when CSF CK activity was ≤ 38 U/L and MBP concentration was ≤ 3 ng/mL. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: In dogs with acute thoracolumbar IVDH, CSF CK activity and MBP concentration appeared to be prognostic indicators and, along with initial MFS, can be used to predict long-term ambulatory outcome.

Naturally occurring disk herniation in dogs: an opportunity for pre-clinical spinal cord injury research.

Traumatic spinal cord injuries represent a significant source of morbidity in humans. Despite decades of research using experimental models of spinal cord injury to identify candidate therapeutics, there has been only limited progress toward translating beneficial findings to human spinal cord injury. Thoracolumbar intervertebral disk herniation is a naturally occurring disease that affects dogs and results in compressive/contusive spinal cord injury. Here we discuss aspects of this disease that are analogous to human spinal cord injury, including injury mechanisms, pathology, and metrics for determining outcomes. We address both the strengths and weaknesses of conducting pre-clinical research in these dogs, and include a review of studies that have utilized these animals to assess efficacy of candidate therapeutics. Finally, we consider a two-species approach to pre-clinical data acquisition, beginning with a reproducible model of spinal cord injury in the rodent as a tool for discovery with validation in pet dogs with intervertebral disk herniation.