Depth of Interaction Calibration and Capabilities in 2×2 Discrete Crystal Arrays and Digital Silicon Photomultipliers.

Digital silicon photomultiplers (dSiPMs) have potential in the advancement of PET detectors. Their advantages include decreased dark counts through selective microcell activation, fast timing, and flexibility configuring event triggering and collection. Further improvements in PET image resolution are possible when photon depth of interaction (DOI) is available, as this reduces parallax error caused by mispositioning events at the peripheral field of view. These improvements are desirable in smaller ring diameter PET systems, such as whole body PET/MRI. In this study we quantify the DOI capabilities of a unique crystal array design (termed dual light sharing arrays or DLSA) that takes advantage of the 2-by-2-pixel die readout logic of a PDPC dSiPM (Philips Digital Photon Counting 3200) device by Philips Medical Systems. The DLSA is comprised of a 2×2 array of 4×4×22 mm3 LYSO crystals; inter-crystal surfaces were optically coupled in part with high-index optical adhesive and optically isolated in complimentary parts with mirror-film reflector such that light sharing was depth-dependent and different along two axes. The DLSA was mounted to one die of a PDPC and its depth-dependent response to 511-keV gamma rays was calibrated using a coincidence-collimated beam from both side and entrance surfaces. Entrance surface DOI calibration was performed through an iterative application of maximum likelihood calculations based on the signal ratio in crystals adjacent to the crystal of interaction. Results showed timing resolutions of 350-370 ps and energy resolutions of 10-12% while achieving a DOI position estimation of 6-7 mm FWHM. Significant improvements in depth estimation error were found when using maximum likelihood estimation and 3-4 depth bins. Furthermore, similar calibration results were obtained for both side-surface and entrance-surface illumination methods, which suggest that PET system calibrations may be easily performed using a monoenergetic flood source with entrance surface illumination.

Multiple-hit parameter estimation in monolithic detectors.

We examine a maximum-a-posteriori method for estimating the primary interaction position of gamma rays with multiple interaction sites (hits) in a monolithic detector. In assessing the performance of a multiple-hit estimator over that of a conventional one-hit estimator, we consider a few different detector and readout configurations of a 50-mm-wide square cerium-doped lutetium oxyorthosilicate block. For this study, we use simulated data from SCOUT, a Monte-Carlo tool for photon tracking and modeling scintillation- camera output. With this tool, we determine estimate bias and variance for a multiple-hit estimator and compare these with similar metrics for a one-hit maximum-likelihood estimator, which assumes full energy deposition in one hit. We also examine the effect of event filtering on these metrics; for this purpose, we use a likelihood threshold to reject signals that are not likely to have been produced under the assumed likelihood model. Depending on detector design, we observe a 1%-12% improvement of intrinsic resolution for a 1-or-2-hit estimator as compared with a 1-hit estimator. We also observe improved differentiation of photopeak events using a 1-or-2-hit estimator as compared with the 1-hit estimator; more than 6% of photopeak events that were rejected by likelihood filtering for the 1-hit estimator were accurately identified as photopeak events and positioned without loss of resolution by a 1-or-2-hit estimator; for PET, this equates to at least a 12% improvement in coincidence-detection efficiency with likelihood filtering applied.

Use of Cramer-Rao Lower Bound for Performance Evaluation of Different Monolithic Crystal PET Detector Designs.

We have previously reported on continuous miniature crystal element (cMiCE) PET detectors that provide depth of interaction (DOI) positioning capability. A key component of the design is the use of a statistics-based positioning (SBP) method for 3D event positioning. The Cramer-Rao lower bound (CRLB) expresses limits on the estimate variances for a set of deterministic parameters. We examine the CRLB as a useful metric to evaluate the performance of our SBP algorithm and to quickly compare the best possible resolution when investigating new detector designs.In this work, the CRLB is first reported based upon experimental results from a cMiCE detector using a 50×50×15-mm(3) LYSO crystal readout by a 64-channel PMT (Hamamatsu H8500) on the exit surface of the crystal. The X/Y resolution is relatively close to the CRLB, while the DOI resolution is more than double the CRLB even after correcting for beam diameter and finite X (i.e., reference DOI position) resolution of the detector. The positioning performance of the cMiCE detector with the same design was also evaluated through simulation. Similar with the experimental results, the difference between the CRLB and measured spatial resolution is bigger in DOI direction than in X/Y direction.Another simulation study was conducted to investigate what causes the difference between the measured spatial resolution and the CRLB. The cMiCE detector with novel sensor-on-entrance-surface (SES) design was modeled as a 49.2×49.2×15-mm(3) LYSO crystal readout by a 12×12 array of 3.8×3.8-mm(2) silicon photomultiplier (SiPM) elements with 4.1-mm center-to-center spacing on the entrance surface of the crystal. The results show that there are two main causes to account for the differences between the spatial resolution and the CRLB. First, Compton scatter in the crystal degrades the spatial resolution. The DOI resolution is degraded more than the X/Y resolution since small angle scatter is preferred. Second, our maximum likelihood (ML) clustering algorithm also has limitations when developing 3D look up tables during detector calibration.

Measurements of entrance-surface vs. conventional single-ended readout of a monolithic scintillator.

Availability of compact high-gain, low-noise Silicon Photomultipliers (SiPM) prompts us to examine readout sensors on the entrance surface (SES) as compared to the conventional single-ended readout with sensors on the opposing surface. We measured detector response statistics versus 3D position for these configurations using an 8×8 SiPM array on a 15-mm-thick by 32-mm-wide LYSO block. We calibrate an independently distributed multivariate-normal likelihood model and use it to generate maximum-likelihood estimates of 3D interaction position. Spatial resolution improved 14% and timing resolution improved 10% for the SES device. Bias was unaffected. Photodetection efficiency of our prototype SiPM may have limited further improvement in positioning and timing performance. In future work, we will look to utilize SiPM arrays with enhanced photodetection efficiency.

Multiple-hit parameter estimation in monolithic detectors.

We examine a maximum-a-priori (MAP) method for estimating the primary interaction position of gamma rays with multiple-interaction sites (hits) in a monolithic detector. In assessing the performance of a multiple-hit estimator over that of a conventional one-hit estimator, we consider a few different detector and readout configurations of a 50-mm-wide square LSO block. For this study, we use simulated data from SCOUT, a Monte-Carlo tool for photon tracking and modeling scintillation-camera output. With this tool, we determine estimate bias and variance for a multiple-hit estimator and compare these with similar metrics for a conventional ML estimator, which assumes full energy deposition in one hit. We also examine the effect of event filtering on these metrics; for this purpose, we use a likelihood threshold to reject signals that are not likely to have been produced under the assumed likelihood model.Depending on detector design, we observe a 1-12% improvement of intrinsic resolution for a 1-or-2-hit estimator as compared with a 1-hit estimator. We also observe improved differentiation of photopeak events using a 1-or-2-hit estimator as compared with the 1-hit estimator; more than 6% of photopeak events that were rejected by likelihood filtering for the 1-hit estimator were accurately identified as photo peak events and positioned without loss of resolution by a 1-or-2-hit estimator.

Study of PET Detector Performance with Varying SiPM Parameters and Readout Schemes.

The spatial resolution performance characteristics of a monolithic crystal PET detector utilizing a sensor on the entrance surface (SES) design is reported. To facilitate this design, we propose to utilize a 2D silicon photomultiplier (SiPM) array device. Using a multi-step simulation process, we investigated the performance of a monolithic crystal PET detector with different data readout schemes and different SiPM parameters. The detector simulated was a 49.2mm by 49.2mm by 15mm LYSO crystal readout by a 12 by 12 array of 3.8mm by 3.8mm SiPM elements. A statistics based positioning (SBP) method was used for event positioning and depth of interaction (DOI) decoding. Although individual channel readout provided better spatial resolution, row-column summing is proposed to reduce the number of readout channels. The SiPM parameters investigated include photon detection efficiency (PDE) and gain variability between different channels; PDE and gain instability; and dark count noise. Of the variables investigated, the PDE shift of -3.2±0.7% and gain shift of -4±0.9% between detector testing and detector calibration had the most obvious impact on the detector performance, since it not only degraded the spatial resolution but also led to bias in positioning, especially at the edges of the crystal. The dark count noise also had an impact on the intrinsic spatial resolution. No data normalization is required for PDE variability of up to 12% FWHM and gain variability of up to 15% FWHM between SiPM channels. Based upon these results, a row-column summing readout scheme without data normalization will be used. Further, we plan to cool our detectors below room temperature to reduce dark count noise and to actively control the temperature of the SiPMs to reduce drifts in PDE and gain.

Design of an FPGA-Based Algorithm for Real-Time Solutions of Statistics-Based Positioning.

We report on the implementation of an algorithm and hardware platform to allow real-time processing of the statistics-based positioning (SBP) method for continuous miniature crystal element (cMiCE) detectors. The SBP method allows an intrinsic spatial resolution of ~1.6 mm FWHM to be achieved using our cMiCE design. Previous SBP solutions have required a postprocessing procedure due to the computation and memory intensive nature of SBP. This new implementation takes advantage of a combination of algebraic simplifications, conversion to fixed-point math, and a hierarchal search technique to greatly accelerate the algorithm. For the presented seven stage, 127 × 127 bin LUT implementation, these algorithm improvements result in a reduction from >7 × 10(6) floating-point operations per event for an exhaustive search to < 5 × 10(3) integer operations per event. Simulations show nearly identical FWHM positioning resolution for this accelerated SBP solution, and positioning differences of <0.1 mm from the exhaustive search solution. A pipelined field programmable gate array (FPGA) implementation of this optimized algorithm is able to process events in excess of 250 K events per second, which is greater than the maximum expected coincidence rate for an individual detector. In contrast with all detectors being processed at a centralized host, as in the current system, a separate FPGA is available at each detector, thus dividing the computational load. These methods allow SBP results to be calculated in real-time and to be presented to the image generation components in real-time. A hardware implementation has been developed using a commercially available prototype board.

Comparison of Detector Intrinsic Spatial Resolution Characteristics for Sensor on the Entrance Surface and Conventional Readout Designs.

We report on a high resolution, monolithic crystal PET detector design concept that provides depth of interaction (DOI) positioning within the crystal. Our design utilizes a novel sensor on the entrance surface (SES) approach combined with a maximum likelihood positioning algorithm. We compare the intrinsic spatial resolution characteristics (i.e., X, Y and Z) using our SES design versus conventional placement of the photo-sensors on the rear surface of the crystal. The sensors can be any two-dimensional array of solid state readout devices (e.g., silicon photomultipliers (SiPM) or avalanche photodiodes (APD)). SiPMs are a new type of solid-state photodetector with Geiger mode operation that can provide signal gain similar to a photomltipiler tube (PMT). Utilizing a multi-step simulation process, we determined the intrinsic spatial resolution characteristics for a variety of detector configurations. The SES design was evaluated via simulation for three different two-dimensional array sizes: 8×8 with 5.8×5.8 mm(2) pads; 12×12 with 3.8×3.8mm(2) pads; and 16×16 with 2.8×2.8 mm(2) pads. To reduce the number of signal channels row-column summing readout was used for the 12×12 and 16×16 channel array devices. The crystal was modeled as a 15 mm monolithic slab of a lutetium-based scintillator with the large area surface varying from 48.8×48.8 mm(2) up to 49.6×49.6 mm(2) depending upon the dimensions of the two-dimensional photo-sensor array. The intrinsic spatial resolution for the 8×8 array is 0.88 mm FWHM in X and Y, and 1.83 mm FWHM in Z (i.e., DOI). Comparing the results versus using a conventional design with the photo-sensors on the backside of the crystal, an average improvement of ~24% in X and Y and 20% in Z is achieved. The X, Y intrinsic spatial resolution improved to 0.67 mm and 0.64 mm FWHM for the 12×12 and 16×16 arrays using row-column readout. Using the 12×12 and 16×16 arrays also led to a slight improvement in the DOI positioning accuracy.

Impact on Image Noise of Incorporating Detector Blurring into Image Reconstruction for a Small Animal PET Scanner.

We study the noise characteristics of an image reconstruction algorithm that incorporates a model of the non-stationary detector blurring (DB) for a mouse-imaging positron emission tomography (PET) scanner. The algorithm uses ordered subsets expectation maximization (OSEM) image reconstruction, which is used to suppress statistical noise. Including the non-stationary detector blurring in the reconstruction process (OSEM(DB)) has been shown to increase contrast in images reconstructed from measured data acquired on the fully-3D MiCES PET scanner developed at the University of Washington. As an extension, this study uses simulation studies with a fully-3D acquisition mode and our proposed FORE+OSEM(DB) reconstruction process to evaluate the volumetric contrast versus noise trade-offs of this approach. Multiple realizations were simulated to estimate the true noise properties of the algorithm. The results show that incorporation of detector blurring (FORE+OSEM(DB)) into the reconstruction process improves the contrast/noise trade-offs compared to FORE+OSEM in a radially dependent manner. Adding post reconstruction 3D Gaussian smoothing to FORE+OSEM and FORE+OSEM(DB) reduces the contrast versus noise advantages of FORE+OSEM(DB).

New Continuous Miniature Crystal Element (cMiCE) Detector Geometries.

Continuous miniature crystal element (cMiCE) detectors are a potentially lower cost alternative to high resolution discrete crystal designs. We report on the intrinsic spatial resolution performance for two cMiCE PET detector designs with depth of interaction (DOI) positioning capability. The first detector utilizes a 50 mm by 50 mm by 8 mm LYSO crystal coupled to a 64 channel, multi-anode PMT. It provides 4 layers of DOI information. The crystal has beveled edges along two of its sides to improve the detector packing when placed in a ring geometry. The second detector utilizes a 50 mm by 50 mm by 15 mm, rectangular LYSO crystal coupled to a 64 channel, multi-anode PMT. It provides up to 15 layers of DOI information. The average intrinsic X, Y spatial resolution for the 8 mm thick, truncated crystal detector was 1.33 +/- 0.31 mm FWHM (45.6 mm by 46.6 mm useful imaging area). The average DOI resolution was 3.5 +/- 0.22 mm. The average intrinsic X, Y spatial resolution for the 15 mm thick crystal detector was 1.74 +/- 0.35 mm FWHM (44.6 mm by 44.6 mm useful imaging area). In addition, the average DOI spatial resolution for 56 test points spanning a 26.4 mm by 12.2 mm region of the crystal was 4.80 +/- 0.36 mm. We believe the 8 mm thick truncated crystal design is suitable for mouse imaging while the 15 mm thick crystal design is more suited for human organ specific imaging systems (e.g., breast and brain).

Design of a Real Time FPGA-based Three Dimensional Positioning Algorithm.

We report on the implementation and hardware platform of a real time Statistics-Based Processing (SBP) method with depth of interaction processing for continuous miniature crystal element (cMiCE) detectors using a sensor on the entrance surface design. Our group previously reported on a Field Programmable Gate Array (FPGA) SBP implementation that provided a two dimensional (2D) solution of the detector's intrinsic spatial resolution. This new implementation extends that work to take advantage of three dimensional (3D) look up tables to provide a 3D positioning solution that improves intrinsic spatial resolution. Resolution is most improved along the edges of the crystal, an area where the 2D algorithm's performance suffers. The algorithm allows an intrinsic spatial resolution of ~0.90 mm FWHM in X and Y and a resolution of ~1.90 mm FWHM in Z (i.e., the depth of the crystal) based upon DETECT2000 simulation results that include the effects of Compton scatter in the crystal. A pipelined FPGA implementation is able to process events in excess of 220k events per second, which is greater than the maximum expected coincidence rate for an individual detector. In contrast to all detectors being processed at a centralized host, as in the current system, a separate FPGA is available at each detector, thus dividing the computational load. A prototype design has been implemented and tested using a reduced word size due to memory limitations of our commercial prototyping board.

Impact on the Spatial Resolution Performance of a Monolithic Crystal PET Detector Due to Different Sensor Parameters.

The performance characteristics of a monolithic crystal PET detector utilizing a novel sensor on the entrance surface (SES) design is reported. To facilitate this design, we propose to utilize a 2D silicon photomultiplier (SiPM) array device. SiPMs are a form of Geiger-Muller mode avalanche photodiodes (GMAPD) that can provide signal gain similar to a photomultiplier tube (PMT). Since these devices are still under active development, their performance parameters are changing. Using a multi-step simulation process, we investigated how different SiPM parameters affect the performance of a monolithic crystal PET detector. These parameters include gain variability between different channels; gain instability; and dark count noise. The detector simulated was a 49.6 mm by 49.6 mm by 15 mm LYSO crystal detector readout by a 16 by 16 array of 2.8 mm by 2.8 mm SiPM elements. To reduce the number of signal channels that need to be collected, the detector utilizes row-column summing. A statistics based positioning method is used for event positioning and depth of interaction (DOI) decoding. Of the variables investigated, the dark count noise had the largest impact on the intrinsic spatial resolution. Gain differences of 5-10% between detector calibration and detector testing had a modest impact on the intrinsic spatial resolution performance and led to a slight bias in positioning. There was no measurable difference with a gain variability of up to 25% between the individual SiPM channels. Based upon these results we are planning to cool our detectors below room temperature to reduce dark count noise and to actively control the temperature of the SiPMs to reduce drifts in gain over time.

Recent developments in PET detector technology.

Positron emission tomography (PET) is a tool for metabolic imaging that has been utilized since the earliest days of nuclear medicine. A key component of such imaging systems is the detector modules--an area of research and development with a long, rich history. Development of detectors for PET has often seen the migration of technologies, originally developed for high energy physics experiments, into prototype PET detectors. Of the many areas explored, some detector designs go on to be incorporated into prototype scanner systems and a few of these may go on to be seen in commercial scanners. There has been a steady, often very diverse development of prototype detectors, and the pace has accelerated with the increased use of PET in clinical studies (currently driven by PET/CT scanners) and the rapid proliferation of pre-clinical PET scanners for academic and commercial research applications. Most of these efforts are focused on scintillator-based detectors, although various alternatives continue to be considered. For example, wire chambers have been investigated many times over the years and more recently various solid-state devices have appeared in PET detector designs for very high spatial resolution applications. But even with scintillators, there have been a wide variety of designs and solutions investigated as developers search for solutions that offer very high spatial resolution, fast timing, high sensitivity and are yet cost effective. In this review, we will explore some of the recent developments in the quest for better PET detector technology.

Design of a High Resolution, Monolithic Crystal, PET/MRI Detector with DOI Positioning Capability.

We report on a high resolution, monolithic crystal PET detector design concept that provides depth of interaction (DOI) positioning within the crystal and is compatible for operation in a MRI scanner to support multimodal anatomic and functional imaging. Our design utilizes a novel sensor on the entrance surface (SES) approach combined with a maximum likelihood positioning algorithm. The sensor will be a two-dimensional array of micro-pixel avalanche photodiodes (MAPD). MAPDs are a new type of solid-state photodetector with Geiger mode operation that can provide signal gain similar to a photomltipiler tube (PMT). In addition, they can be operated in high magnetic fields to support PET/MR imaging. Utilizing a multi-step simulation process, we determined the intrinsic spatial resolution characteristics for a variety of detector configurations. The crystal was always modeled as a 48.8 mm by 48.8 mm by 15 mm monolithic slab of a lutetium-based scintillator. The SES design was evaluated via simulation for three different two-dimensional MAPD array sizes: 8×8 with 5.8×5.8 mm(2) pads; 12×12 with 3.8×3.8 mm(2) pads; and 16×16 with 2.8×2.8 mm(2) pads. To reduce the number of signal channels row-column summing readout was explored for the 12×12 and 16×16 channel array devices. The intrinsic spatial resolution for the 8×8 MAPD array is 0.88 mm FWHM in X and Y, and 1.83 mm FWHM in Z (i.e., DOI). Comparing the results versus using a conventional design with the photosensors on the backside of the crystal, an average improvement of ~24% in X and Y and 20% in Z is achieved. The X, Y intrinsic spatial resolution improved to 0.66 mm and 0.65 mm FWHM for the 12×12 and 16×16 MAPDs using row-column readout. Using the 12×12 and 16×16 arrays also led to a slight improvement in the DOI positioning accuracy.

A high resolution, monolithic crystal, PET/MRI detector with DOI positioning capability.

We report on a high resolution, monolithic crystal PET detector design that provides depth of interaction (DOI) positioning within the crystal and is compatible for operation in a MRI scanner to support multimodal anatomic and functional imaging. Our design utilizes a novel sensor on the entrance surface (SES) design combined with a maximum likelihood positioning algorithm. The sensor will be a two-dimensional array of micro-pixel avalanche photodiodes (MAPD). MAPDs are a new type of solid-state photodetector with Geiger mode operation that can provide signal gain similar to a photomltipiler tube (PMT). In addition, they can be operated in high magnetic fields to support PET/MR imaging. Utilizing a multi-step simulation process, we determined the intrinsic spatial resolution characteristics of a detector using the proposed design. For a 48.8 mm by 48.8 mm by 15 mm LSO crystal detector readout by an 8 by 8 array of 5.8 mm by 5.8 mm MAPD elements the intrinsic spatial resolution is 0.83 mm FWHM in X, 0.92 mm FWHM in Y and 1.83 mm FWHM in Z (i.e., DOI) for normally incident photons. Comparing the results versus using a conventional design with the photosensors on the backside of the crystal, an average improvement of 25% in X, 23% in Y, and 20% in Z is achieved.

Calibration procedure for a continuous miniature crystal element (cMiCE) detector.

We report on methods to speed up the calibration process for a continuous miniature crystal element (cMiCE) detector. Our cMiCE detector is composed of a 50 mm by 50 mm by 8 mm thick LYSO crystal coupled to a 64-channel, flat panel photomultiplier tube (PMT). This detector is a lower cost alternative to designs that use finely pixilated individual crystal detectors. It achieves an average intrinsic spatial resolution of ~1.4 mm full width at half maximum (FWHM) over the useful face of the detector through the use of a statistics based positioning algorithm. A drawback to the design is the length of time it takes to calibrate the detector. We report on three methods to speed up this process. The first method is to use multiple point fluxes on the surface of the detector to calibrate different points of the detector from a single data acquisition. This will work as long as the point fluxes are appropriately spaced on the detector so that there is no overlap of signal. A special multi-source device that can create up to 16 point fluxes has been custom designed for this purpose. The second scheme is to characterize the detector with coarser sampling and use interpolation to create look up tables with the desired detector sampling (e.g., 0.25 mm). The intrinsic spatial resolution performance will be investigated for sampling intervals of 0.76 mm, 1.013 mm, 1.52 mm and 2.027 mm. The third method is to adjust the point flux diameter by varying the geometry of the setup. By bringing the coincidence detector array closer to the point source array both the spot size and the coincidence counting rate will increase. We will report on the calibration setup factor we are able to achieve while maintaining an average intrinsic spatial resolution of ~1.4 mm FWHM for the effective imaging area of our cMiCE detector.

Effect of Number of Readout Channels on the Intrinsic Spatial Resolution Performance of a Continuous Miniature Crystal Element (cMiCE) Detector.

In this work we investigate how the intrinsic spatial resolution varies with the number of digitized readout channels for a 64 (8×8) channel detector using a statistics-based positioning algorithm. We report results for both 6 mm and 8 mm thick crystals. Three channel reduction schemes are explored. The simplest scheme is row and column summing (R-C sum) of the photomultiplier tube channels. The second method is to only use channels with signals above a 1% threshold of the total signal (1% thres). The third method is to acquire a subset of PMT channels determined by the maximum signal channel (zone mask). The full width at half maximum (FWHM) intrinsic spatial resolution results for the central and corner sections of the detector are presented for each of the methods. All methods except R-C sum performed well for the central section of the detector. The 1% thres and zone mask schemes showed significant improvement for the corner section of the 6 mm thick crystal. All methods using a single depth look-up table had difficulty in the corner region for the 8 mm thick crystal. We believe this is caused by depth dependent edge effects on the light response function. Initial results using a depth dependent look-up table show improved positioning performance.

Improving the intrinsic spatial resolution performance of the continuous miniature crystal element (cMiCE) detector.

We have previously reported performance characteristics of a cMiCE detector composed of a 50 mm by 50 mm by 8 mm thick slab of LYSO, coupled to a 64 channel flat-panel PMT. In that work, all 64 PMT channels were digitized and a statistics-based positioning method was used for event positioning. In characterizing the detector, the intrinsic spatial resolution performance for the corner sections of the crystal was degraded compared to the central section of the crystal, even when using our SBP method. It is our belief that the poorer positioning performance at the corners is because much of the light is lost (i.e., not collected by our PMT). To offset this problem, we propose to place light sensors (i.e., micro-pixel avalanche photo diodes, MAPD) at the corners along the short edge of the crystal. The new design would require an additional 8 MAPD devices. Monte Carlo simulation was used to compare the performance of the original cMiCE design and this new enhanced design. Simulation results using DETECT2000 are presented. In addition to doing light ray tracing, GEANT was used to track gamma interactions (i.e., Compton scatter and photoelectric absorption) in the crystal. Thus the simulations include the effects of Compton scatter in the detector. Results indicate that adding the sensors improves the intrinsic spatial resolution performance from 0.99 mm FWHM to 0.79 mm FWHM for the corner section of the crystal, thereby nearly matching the intrinsic spatial resolution of the center section of the crystal (i.e., 0.73 mm FWHM). These results are based upon using dual-DOI look up tables. Additional results were that energy histograms were better using just the 64 channels from the flat panel PMT than using all 72 signal channels.

Development of a single detector ring micro crystal element scanner: QuickPET II.

This article describes a single ring version of the micro crystal element scanner (MiCES) and investigation of its spatial resolution imaging characteristics for mouse positron emission tomography (PET) imaging. This single ring version of the MiCES system, referred to as QuickPET II, consists of 18 MiCE detector modules mounted as a single ring in a vertical gantry. The system has a 5.76-cm transverse field of view and a 1.98-cm axial field of view. In addition to the scanner and data acquisition system, we have developed an iterative reconstruction that includes a model of the system's detector response function. Evaluation images of line sources and mice have been acquired. Using filtered backprojection, the resolution for a reconstructed line source has been measured at 1.2 mm full width at half maximum. F-18-2-fluoro-2-deoxyglucose mouse PET images are provided. The result shows that QuickPET II has the imaging characteristics to support high-resolution, static mouse PET studies using 18-F labeled compounds.