Regulation by distinct MYB transcription factors defines the roles of OsCYP86A9 in anther development and root suberin deposition.

Cytochrome P450 proteins (CYPs) play critical roles in plant development and adaptation to fluctuating environments. Previous reports have shown that CYP86A proteins are involved in the biosynthesis of suberin and cutin in Arabidopsis. However, the functions of these proteins in rice remain obscure. In this study, a rice mutant with incomplete male sterility was identified. Cytological analyses revealed that this mutant was defective in anther development. Cloning of the mutant gene indicated that the responsible mutation was on OsCYP86A9. OsMYB80 is a core transcription factor in the regulation of rice anther development. The expression of OsCYP86A9 was abolished in the anther of osmyb80 mutant. In vivo and in vitro experiments showed that OsMYB80 binds to the MYB-binding motifs in OsCYP86A9 promoter region and regulates its expression. Furthermore, the oscyp86a9 mutant exhibited an impaired suberin deposition in the root, and was more susceptible to drought stress. Interestingly, genetic and biochemical analyses revealed that OsCYP86A9 expression was regulated in the root by certain MYB transcription factors other than OsMYB80. Moreover, mutations in the MYB genes that regulate OsCYP86A9 expression in the root did not impair the male fertility of the plant. Taken together, these findings revealed the critical roles of OsCYP86A9 in plant development and proposed that OsCYP86A9 functions in anther development and root suberin formation via two distinct tissue-specific regulatory pathways.

Behavioral impulse and time pressure jointly influence intentional inhibition: evidence from the Free Two-Choice Oddball task.

Intentional inhibition is a crucial component of self-regulation, yet it is under-researched, because it is difficult to study without external stimuli or overt behaviors. Although Free-Choice tasks have been developed, it remains unclear how two key design features (i.e., behavioral impulse and time pressure) affect their sensitivity to intentional inhibition. To investigate this, the present study developed a Free Two-Choice Oddball task, which generated both an inhibition rate index and a response time (RT) index. Two experiments were conducted to systematically manipulate the ratio of the reactive standard to oddball trials and reaction time limit, inducing diverse behavioral impulses and different time pressures. The following findings were obtained from the critical Free-Choice trials. In the equal ratio condition, participants demonstrated comparable RTs for both the standard and oddball responses. In the moderate-ratio condition, participants exhibited longer RTs for the oddball than standard responses under low- but not high-time pressure. In the high-ratio condition, while RTs for the oddball responses were longer than those for the standard responses under both the high- and low-time pressures, participants displayed a decreased inhibition rate under the high-time pressure compared to the low-time pressure. Finally, participants exhibited a reduced inhibition rate in the high-ratio condition compared to the moderate-ratio condition. Together, these findings suggest that Free-Choice tasks can reflect intentional inhibition under specific conditions, and intentional inhibition is susceptible to both behavioral impulse and time pressure, while also establishing the theoretical and methodological foundations for subsequent research.

The ribosomal protein P0A is required for embryo development in rice.

BACKGROUND: The P-stalk is a conserved and vital structural element of ribosome. The eukaryotic P-stalk exists as a P0-(P1-P2)2 pentameric complex, in which P0 function as a base structure for incorporating the stalk onto 60S pre-ribosome. Prior studies have suggested that P0 genes are indispensable for survival in yeast and animals. However, the functions of P0 genes in plants remain elusive. RESULTS: In the present study, we show that rice has three P0 genes predicted to encode highly conserved proteins OsP0A, OsP0B and OsP0C. All of these P0 proteins were localized both in cytoplasm and nucleus, and all interacted with OsP1. Intriguingly, the transcripts of OsP0A presented more than 90% of the total P0 transcripts. Moreover, knockout of OsP0A led to embryo lethality, while single or double knockout of OsP0B and OsP0C did not show any visible defects in rice. The genomic DNA of OsP0A could well complement the lethal phenotypes of osp0a mutant. Finally, sequence and syntenic analyses revealed that OsP0C evolved from OsP0A, and that duplication of genomic fragment harboring OsP0C further gave birth to OsP0B, and both of these duplication events might happen prior to the differentiation of indica and japonica subspecies in rice ancestor. CONCLUSION: These data suggested that OsP0A functions as the predominant P0 gene, playing an essential role in embryo development in rice. Our findings highlighted the importance of P0 genes in plant development.

Social exclusion modulates neural dynamics of monetary and social reward processing in young adult females.

Evidence suggests that social exclusion increases one's sensitivity to monetary and social rewards. However, whether and how social exclusion modulates the neural dynamics of reward processing remains unknown. The current study aimed to address this gap by systematically investigating the differential influences of social exclusion on various stages of monetary and social reward processing. Forty-five female participants were recruited, and the Cyberball game was used to manipulate social exclusion. To disentangle the anticipatory and consummatory stages of monetary and social reward processing, we recorded event-related potentials during two incentive delay tasks, one with a monetary reward and one with a social reward. The results showed that during the anticipatory stage, a larger contingent negative variation was observed for the exclusion group than for the inclusion group, regardless of reward type. During the consummatory stage, although the reward-related positivity was larger in the exclusion group than in the inclusion group, this difference was only observed for the social, and not monetary, reward feedback. These findings advance our understanding of the relationship between social exclusion and reward processing and suggest that while social exclusion might exert comparable enhancement effect for monetary and social reward processing during the anticipatory stage, it exerts a specific enhancement effect for social reward processing during the consummatory stage.

Social exclusion modulates dual mechanisms of cognitive control: Evidence from ERPs.

Many studies have investigated how social exclusion influences cognitive control but reported inconsistent findings. Based on the dual mechanisms of control framework, this study investigated how social exclusion influences proactive and reactive modes of control (Experiment 1) and the underlying mechanisms (Experiment 2). The Cyberball game was used to manipulate social exclusion. Eighty-six female participants (about 40 for each experiment) performed cognitive control tasks while event-related potentials were recorded. In Experiment 1, an AX Continuous Performance Task (AX-CPT) was adopted to differentiate between proactive and reactive control. Results showed that social exclusion weakened proactive control but enhanced reactive control, as reflected by the weaker proactive control indicators (i.e., P3b and CNV), but strengthened reactive control indicators (accuracy and N2) in excluded individuals. More importantly, in Experiment 2, through varying in whether task cues were available before or after target onset in a cued-flanker task, we further manipulated the possibility of engaging proactive control, and found the weakened proactive control could be attributed to both impaired cognitive ability and lowered motivation to engage proactive control in excluded individuals. Together, these results provide insight on how social exclusion influences cognitive control and suggest promising implications for designing effective interventions to relieve the negative impact of social exclusion.

Guilty by association: How group-based (collective) guilt arises in the brain.

People do not only feel guilty for transgressions that they are causally responsible for (i.e., personal guilt); they also feel guilty for transgressions committed by those they identify as in-group members (i.e., collective or group-based guilt). Decades of research using scenario-based imagination tasks and self-reported measures has shown that when reminded of transgressions committed by in-group members, people express guilt and are willing to make amends, even when they are not causally responsible for the transgressions. However, it remains elusive whether people genuinely experience guilt or simply display remorseful gestures deemed appropriate in those contexts. To resolve this puzzle, it is critical to closely examine the neurocognitive basis of group-based guilt and its relationship with personal guilt, a goal that self-reported measures alone cannot satisfactorily achieve. Here, we combined functional MRI with an interaction-based minimal group paradigm in which participants either directly caused harm to a group of victims (i.e., personal guilt), or observed in-group members cause harm to the victims (i.e., group-based guilt). In three experiments (N â€‹= â€‹90), we demonstrated and replicated that the perceived responsibility one shared with in-group members in transgression predicted both behavioral and neural manifestations of group-based guilt. Multivariate pattern analysis (MVPA) of the functional MRI data showed that group-based guilt recruited patterns of neural responses in anterior middle cingulate cortex that resembled personal guilt. These results have broadened our understanding of how group membership is integrated into the neurocognitive processes underlying social emotions.

Multiple representations in visual working memory simultaneously guide attention: The type of memory-matching representation matters.

Whether multiple visual working memory (VWM) representations can simultaneously become active templates to guide attention is controversial. The single-item-template hypothesis argues that only one VWM representation can be active at a time, whereas the multiple-item-template hypothesis argues that multiple VWM templates can simultaneously guide attention. The present study examined the two hypotheses in three (out of four) experiments, using three different types of memory objects: Experiment 1: shapes; Experiment 2: colors; and Experiment 3: colored shapes. Participants were required to hold one (memory-1) or two objects (memory-2) in VWM while performing a tilted line search task. Zero (match-0), one (match-1), or two (match-2) memory stimuli reappeared as distractors in the search array. Guidance effects were found for each type of memory stimuli. More importantly, the guidance effect for memory-2/match-2 trials was significantly larger than that for memory-2/match-1 and memory-1/match-1 trials when holding two colors or two colored shapes in VWM, which is in line with the multiple-item-template hypothesis. However, the pattern of simultaneous guidance effect is not perfectly found for two memory shapes, which may indicate that a reliable simultaneous guidance effect from two representations in VWM can be observed only when the memory-matching stimuli is more effective in guiding attention. Experiment 4 directly compared the guidance effect induced by feature-based matches (partial matching) with the guidance effect induced object-based matches (complete matching) in memory-set-size 2. Reliable guidance effects in match-1 and match-2 trials for object-based matches but not for feature-based matches confirmed the crucial role of the type of memory-matching stimuli in guiding attention.

Social exclusion weakens storage capacity and attentional filtering ability in visual working memory.

Social exclusion has been found to impair visual working memory (WM), while the underlying neural processes are currently unclear. Using two experiments, we tested whether the poor WM performance caused by exclusion was due to reduced storage capacity, impaired attentional filtering ability or both. The Cyberball game was used to manipulate social exclusion. Seventy-four female participants performed WM tasks while event-related potentials were recorded. In Experiment 1, participants were made to remember the orientations of red rectangles while ignoring salient green rectangles. Results showed that exclusion impaired the ability to filter out irrelevant items from WM, as reflected by the similar contralateral delay activity (CDA) amplitudes for one-target-one-distractor condition and two-targets condition, as well as the similar CDA amplitudes for two-targets-two-distractors condition and four-targets condition in excluded individuals. In Experiment 2, participants were asked to remember 1-5 colored squares. Results showed that exclusion reduced storage capacity, as the CDA amplitudes reached asymptote at loads of two items for exclusion group and at loads of three items for inclusion group. Together, these two experiments provided complementary evidence that WM deficits caused by social exclusion were due to reduced storage capacity and impaired attentional filtering ability.

Social exclusion impairs distractor suppression but not target enhancement in selective attention.

Social exclusion has been thought to weaken one's ability to exert inhibitory control. Existing studies have primarily focused on the relationship between exclusion and behavioral inhibition, and have reported that exclusion impairs behavioral inhibition. However, whether exclusion also affects selective attention, another important aspect of inhibitory control, remains unknown. Therefore, the current study aimed to explore whether social exclusion impairs selective attention, and to specifically examine its effect on two hypothesized mechanisms of selective attention: target enhancement and distractor suppression. The Cyberball game was used to manipulate social exclusion. Participants then performed a visual search task while event-related potentials were recorded. In the visual search task, target and salient distractor were either both presented laterally or one was presented on the vertical midline and the other laterally. Results showed that social exclusion differentially affected target and distractor processing. While exclusion impaired distractor suppression, reflected as smaller distractor-positivity (Pd) amplitudes for the exclusion group compared to the inclusion group, it did not affect target enhancement, reflected as similar target-negativity (Nt) amplitudes for both the exclusion and inclusion groups. Together, these results extend our understanding of the relationship between exclusion and inhibitory control, and suggest that social exclusion affects selective attention in a more complex manner than previously thought.

Contextual Valence and Sociality Jointly Influence the Early and Later Stages of Neutral Face Processing.

Recent studies have demonstrated that face perception is influenced by emotional contextual information. However, because facial expressions are routinely decoded and understood during social communication, sociality should also be considered-that is, it seems necessary to explore whether emotional contextual effects are influenced by the sociality of contextual information. Furthermore, although one behavioral study has explored the effects of context on selective attention to faces, the exact underlying mechanisms remain unknown. Therefore, the current study investigated how valence and sociality of contextual information influenced the early and later stages of neutral face processing. We first employed an established affective learning procedure, wherein neutral faces were paired with verbal information that differed in valence (negative, neutral) and sociality (social, non-social), to manipulate contextual information. Then, to explore the effects of context on face perception, participants performed a face perception task, while the N170, early posterior negativity (EPN), and late positive potential (LPP) components were measured. Finally, to explore the effects of context on selective attention, participants performed a dot probe task while the N2pc was recorded. The results showed that, in the face perception task, faces paired with negative social information elicited greater EPN and LPP than did faces paired with neutral social information; no differences existed between faces paired with negative and neutral non-social information. In the dot probe task, faces paired with negative social information elicited a more negative N2pc amplitude (indicating attentional bias) than did faces paired with neutral social information; the N2pc did not differ between faces paired with negative and neutral non-social information. Together, these results suggest that contextual information influenced both face perception and selective attention, and these context effects were governed by the interaction between valence and sociality of contextual information.

Social exclusion modulates priorities of attention allocation in cognitive control.

Many studies have investigated how exclusion affects cognitive control and have reported inconsistent results. However, these studies usually treated cognitive control as a unitary concept, whereas it actually involved two main sub-processes: conflict detection and response implementation. Furthermore, existing studies have focused primarily on exclusion's effects on conscious cognitive control, while recent studies have shown the existence of unconscious cognitive control. Therefore, the present study investigated whether and how exclusion affects the sub-processes underlying conscious and unconscious cognitive control differently. The Cyberball game was used to manipulate social exclusion and participants subsequently performed a masked Go/No-Go task during which event-related potentials were measured. For conscious cognitive control, excluded participants showed a larger N2 but smaller P3 effects than included participants, suggesting that excluded people invest more attention in conscious conflict detection, but less in conscious inhibition of impulsive responses. However, for unconscious cognitive control, excluded participants showed a smaller N2 but larger P3 effects than included participants, suggesting that excluded people invest less attention in unconscious conflict detection, but more in unconscious inhibition of impulsive responses. Together, these results suggest that exclusion causes people to rebalance attention allocation priorities for cognitive control according to a more flexible and adaptive strategy.

Neural signature of reward-modulated unconscious inhibitory control.

Consciously initiated cognitive control is generally determined by motivational incentives (e.g., monetary reward). Recent studies have revealed that human cognitive control processes can nevertheless operate without awareness. However, whether monetary reward can impinge on unconscious cognitive control remains unclear. To clarify this issue, a task consisting of several runs was designed to combine a modified version of the reward-priming paradigm with an unconscious version of the Go/No-Go task. At the beginning of each run, participants were exposed to a high- or low-value coin, followed by the modified Go/No-Go task. Participants could earn the coin only if they responded correctly to each trial of the run. Event-related potential (ERP) results indicated that high-value rewards (vs. low-value rewards) induced a greater centro-parietal P3 component associated with conscious and unconscious inhibitory control. Moreover, the P3 amplitude correlated positively with the magnitude of reaction time slowing reflecting the intensity of activation of unconscious inhibitory control in the brain. These findings suggest that high-value reward may facilitate human higher-order inhibitory processes that are independent of conscious awareness, which provides insights into the brain processes that underpin motivational modulation of cognitive control.

The divergent effects of fear and disgust on unconscious inhibitory control.

Previous studies have shown that negative emotional distracters impair conscious inhibitory control. Recent research has shown that inhibitory control can be triggered unconsciously; therefore, in Experiment 1, we aimed to investigate whether negative emotional distracters affect unconscious inhibitory control. Furthermore, in Experiment 2, we examined whether fearful and disgusting distracters have differential effects on unconscious inhibitory control. Participants were instructed to perform a masked Go/No-Go task superimposed on a negative or neutral image cue (Experiment 1) or on a fearful, disgusting or neutral image cue (Experiment 2). Results showed that negative emotional distracters impaired unconscious inhibitory control; furthermore, disgusting distracters impeded unconscious inhibitory control when compared to fearful ones. This study is the first to provide evidence that fear and disgust may affect unconscious inhibitory control differently. These results expand the understanding of the relationship between emotions and inhibitory control.

The Divergent Effects of Fear and Disgust on Inhibitory Control: An ERP Study.

Negative emotional stimuli have been shown to attract attention and impair executive control. However, two different types of unpleasant stimuli, fearful and disgusting, are often inappropriately treated as a single category in the literature on inhibitory control. Therefore, the present study aimed to investigate the divergent effects of fearful and disgusting distracters on inhibitory control (both conscious and unconscious inhibition). Specifically, participants were engaged in a masked Go/No-Go task superimposed on fearful, disgusting, or neutral emotional contexts, while event-related potentials were measured concurrently. The results showed that for both conscious and unconscious conditions, disgusting stimuli elicited a larger P2 than fearful ones, and the difference waves of P3 amplitude under disgusting contexts were smaller than that under fearful contexts. These results suggest that disgusting distracters consume more attentional resources and therefore impair subsequent inhibitory control to a greater extent. This study is the first to provide electrophysiological evidence that fear and disgust differently affect inhibitory control. These results expand our understanding of the relationship between emotions and inhibitory control.