Therapeutic Effects of Plant Anthocyanin against Alzheimer's Disease and Modulate Gut Health, Short-Chain Fatty Acids.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common form of dementia and neurogenerative disease (NDD), and it is also one of the leading causes of death worldwide. The number of AD patients is over 55 million according to 2020 Alzheimer's Disease International (ADI), and the number is increasing drastically without any effective cure. In this review, we discuss and analyze the potential role of anthocyanins (ACNs) against AD while understanding the molecular mechanisms. ACNs have been reported as having neuroprotective effects by mitigating cognitive impairments, apoptotic markers, neuroinflammation, aberrant amyloidogenesis, and tauopathy. Taken together, ACNs could be an important therapeutic agent for combating or delaying the onset of AD.

Fermented Aronia melanocarpa Inhibits Melanogenesis through Dual Mechanisms of the PI3K/AKT/GSK-3ß and PKA/CREB Pathways.

UV light causes excessive oxidative stress and abnormal melanin synthesis, which results in skin hyperpigmentation disorders such as freckles, sunspots, and age spots. Much research has been carried out to discover natural plants for ameliorating these disorders. Aronia melanocarpa contains various polyphenolic compounds with antioxidative activities, but its effects on melanogenesis have not been fully elucidated. In this study, we investigated the inhibitory effect of fermented Aronia melanocarpa (FA) fermented with Monascus purpureus on melanogenesis and its underlying mechanism in the B16F10 melanoma cell line. Our results indicate that FA inhibited tyrosinase activity and melanogenesis in alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone (α-MSH)-induced B16F10 cells. FA significantly downregulated the PKA/CREB pathway, resulting in decreased protein levels of tyrosinase, TRP-1, and MITF. FA also inhibited the transcription of MITF by increasing the phosphorylation levels of both GSK3ß and AKT. Interestingly, we demonstrated that these results were owing to the significant increase in gallic acid, a phenolic compound of Aronia melanocarpa produced after the fermentation of Monascus purpureus. Taken together, our research suggests that Aronia melanocarpa fermented with Monascus purpureus acts as a melanin inhibitor and can be used as a potential cosmetic or therapeutic for improving hyperpigmentation disorders.

Quercetin Is An Active Agent in Berries against Neurodegenerative Diseases Progression through Modulation of Nrf2/HO1.

Berries are well-known fruits for their antioxidant effects due to their high content of flavonoids, and quercetin is one of the potent bioactive flavonoids. Although oxidative stress is an inevitable outcome in cells due to energy uptake and metabolism and other factors, excessive oxidative stress is considered a pivotal mediator for the cell death and leads to the progression of neurodegenerative diseases (NDDs). Furthermore, oxidative stress triggers inflammation that leads to neuronal cell loss. Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, Huntington's disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, multiple sclerosis, and so on are the main neurodegenerative diseases. Hence, AD and PD are the most affected NDDs and cause the most lethality without any effective cure. Since AD and PD are the most common NDDs, therefore, in this study, we will describe the effect of oxidative stress on AD and PD. Targeting oxidative stress could be a very effective way to prevent and cure NDDs. Thus, the nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) and heme oxygenase-1 (HO1) are potent endogenous antioxidant modulatory pathways, which also show cytoprotective activities. Modulation of Nrf2/HO1 signaling pathways through a biological approach could be an effective way to treat with NDDs. Quercetin is a natural polyphenol, which protects neurodegeneration, remarkably by suppressing oxidative stress and inflammation. Thus, quercetin could be a very effective agent against NDDs. We will discuss the benefits and challenges of quercetin to treat against NDDs, focusing on molecular biology.

The Anti-Inflammatory Activities of Fermented Curcuma That Contains Butyrate Mitigate DSS-Induced Colitis in Mice.

Inflammatory bowel disease is characterized by a radical imbalance of inflammatory signaling pathways in the gastrointestinal tract, and it is categorized into two diseases, such as Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis. In this study, we investigated anti-inflammatory activities using fermented Curcuma that contains butyrate (FB). Nitric oxide production in RAW 264.7 cells and the expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase in the intestinal mucosa appears to be enhanced in active ulcerative colitis. Here, the cytotoxicity, physiological activity, and anti-inflammatory efficacy of FB in colitis animals were investigated. To verify the anti-inflammatory effect, this study was conducted using the dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-induced colitis mice model. As a result, non-toxicity was confirmed, and anti-inflammatory effects were revealed by inducing a reduction of LPS-induced NO production. In the DSS-induced colitis, reduced weight was recovered and a decrease in inflammatory factors Ig-E and TNF-α in the mesenteric lymph node (MLN) and spleen was induced, and it was confirmed to help with the morphological remodeling of the intestine. In conclusion, this paper suggests that FB can help to alleviate intestinal inflammation and to improve the intestinal environment, with the help of morphological remodeling.

Sodium butyrate ameliorates neurotoxicity and exerts anti-inflammatory effects in high fat diet-fed mice.

The prevalence of high-fat diet consumption-related disorders is increasing, and it is often associated with oxidative stress, inflammation, and dysregulation in the brain may lead to neurodegenerative diseases (NDDs). Our study aims to evaluate the neuroprotective effects of sodium butyrate (NaB) on HFD-fed mice. In this study, four-week-old male C57Bl/6NTac mice were divided into three groups; the control group, the HFD group, and the HFD + NaB group where mice received 11 mg/kg body weight of NaB with HFD. Western blotting, reverse transcription-PCR, and ELISA were used for biochemical analysis of brain specimens. We found that NaB restored bodyweight and attenuated P-53, Bcl-2-associated X protein (BAX), and caspase cascades in the brains of HFD-fed mice. In addition. NaB reduced the expressions of proinflammatory cytokines and positively modulated antioxidant biomarkers. NaB treatment upregulated the expression of the growth factor-related factors PPARγ, CREB, and BDNF in the brain tissues of HFD-fed mice. Furthermore, we found that NaB significantly ameliorated glucocorticoid receptor and NLRP3 inflammasome expression. Based on our findings, NaB suppressed apoptotic and inflammatory cytokines and enhanced the expression of endogenous antioxidants in brain tissues of HFD-fed mice. Our data strongly suggests that NaB could be utilized as an effective therapeutic agent for NDDs.

Neuroprotective Effects of Sodium Butyrate through Suppressing Neuroinflammation and Modulating Antioxidant Enzymes.

The discovery of effective therapeutic agents against neurodegenerative diseases (NDDs) remains challenging. Neurotoxicity, inflammations, and oxidative stress are associating factors of NDDs. Sodium butyrate (NaB) is a short-chain fatty acid found in diet and produced in the gut that reportedly protects cancer, inflammation, obesity and so on. Previously, SH-SY5Y cells were studied as in vitro models of cerebral diseases. We have investigated the neuroprotective effects of NaB in SH-SY5Y cells stimulated with TNF-α. The expression of inflammatory mediators, including iNOS, COX-2, and mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPK) and the apoptotic regulators, including P-53, Bcl-2 associated X (BAX) Protein, and caspase-3 were analyzed by western blot analysis. The anti-apoptotic gene Bcl-2 and the pro-apoptotic gene BAX translocation were also investigated. Our results showed that NaB attenuated cell death and inhibited the NO production and decreased the expression of iNOS and COX-2 in TNF-α-stimulated SH-SY5Y cells. NaB notably ameliorated apoptotic regulatory proteins p-53, Caspase-3 and caspase-1 level, and reversed phosphorylation of extracellular signal-regulated kinases and p-38 proteins. NaB ameliorated Glucocorticoid receptor and NLRP3 inflammasome expressions. NaB also suppressed the BAX nuclear translocation and modulated Nrf-2, HO-1 and MnSOD expression in neuroblastoma cells. In addition, NaB substantially reversed the reactive oxygen species in H2O2 induced SH-SY5Y cells. Altogether, our results suggest that sodium butyrate has potential therapeutic effects against NDDs.

Fermented blueberry and black rice containing Lactobacillus plantarum MG4221: a novel functional food for particulate matter (PM2.5)/dinitrochlorobenzene (DNCB)-induced atopic dermatitis.

Particulate matter (PM2.5) is a risk factor for the deterioration of atopic dermatitis (AD) and certain constituents of PM2.5 can induce inflammation via oxidative stress. Natural functional foods, including antioxidative blueberry and black rice, can be the best alternative for the development of AD therapy. Thus, we investigated whether PM2.5 regulated the expression of proinflammatory cytokines involved in the progression of AD and further investigated the improvement effect of fermented blueberry and black rice extract (FBBBR) containing Lactobacillus plantarum MG4221 in vitro and in vivo. The FBBBR treatment significantly ameliorated skin inflammation compared with the control treatments via regulation of the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK)/nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) pathways in PM2.5-treated HaCaT cells. In PM2.5/dinitrochlorobenzene (DNCB)-treated NC/Nga mice, the oral administration of FBBBR significantly decreased transepidermal water loss and erythema, the incidence of scratching behavior, and the production of serum immunoglobin E and T helper 2-associated cytokine and, similar to dexamethasone treatment, up-regulated the protein expression of filaggrin and involucrin in skin tissue. Syringic acid and kuromanin, standard compounds found in FBBBR, significantly decreased the interleukin (IL)-1ß, IL-6 and IL-8 levels in PM2.5-treated HaCaT cells. Therefore, we can suggest that FBBBR may serve as an important functional food for AD.

Nutritional Interventions Using Functional Foods and Nutraceuticals to Improve Inflammatory Bowel Disease.

The gastrointestinal tract, the second largest organ in the body, plays an important role in nutrient and mineral intake through the intestinal barrier. Dysfunction of intestinal permeability and related disorders commonly occur in patients with inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), one of the health problems in the Western societies that are considered to be mainly due to the Western diet. Although the exact etiology of IBD has not been elucidated, environmental and genetic factors may be involved in its pathogenesis. Many synthetic or biological drugs, such as 5-aminosalicylic acid corticosteroids as anti-inflammatory drugs, have been used clinically to treat IBD. However, their long-term use exhibits some adverse health consequences. Therefore, many researchers have devised alternative therapies to overcome this problem. Many studies have revealed that some functional nutrients in nature can relieve gastrointestinal inflammation by controlling proinflammatory cytokines. In this study, we review the ability of functional nutraceuticals such as phytochemicals, fatty acids, and bioactive peptides in improving IBD by regulating its underlying pathogenic mechanisms.

Chlorogenic Acid Improves Symptoms of Inflammatory Bowel Disease in Interleukin-10 Knockout Mice.

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a chronic intestinal inflammation that is highly prevalent worldwide. Interleukin (IL)-10 can effectively inhibit negative cascades such as the production of inflammatory mediators (inducible nitric oxide synthase [iNOS], cyclooxygenase-2), accumulation of inflammatory infiltrates (macrophages, eosinophils, neutrophils), toxicity (lower T cell subsets), and secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-1ß, TNF-α) in tissues such as the spleen, mesenteric lymph nodes (MLN), Peyer's patch (PP), and colon. In this study, we investigated whether chlorogenic acid (CHA) can regulate inflammation in IL-10 knockout (KO) mice used as an IBD animal model. CHA significantly increased the ratio of CD4+/CD8+, T cell subsets in PP, and MLN of IL-10 KO mice. In addition, CHA also morphologically attenuated colon inflammation in IL-10 KO mice. We demonstrated that CHA significantly reduced the expression levels of iNOS, IL-1ß, TNF-α, which were highly expressed in IL-10 KO mice. Therefore, CHA may provide beneficial effects for improving IBD by decreasing inflammations.

Lindera glauca (Siebold et Zucc.) Blume Stem Extracts Protect Against tert-Butyl Hydroperoxide-Induced Oxidative Stress.

In this study, we investigated the antioxidant and protective effect of Lindera glauca stem (LGS) extracts against oxidative stress. We compared antioxidant properties of water extract (LGSW) with ethanol extract (LGSE) by determining the contents responsible for antioxidant activities such as polyphenols and flavonoids. Antioxidant properties were also determined by 2,2'-azinobis-(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS) radical scavenging activity and ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP). Lipid peroxidation was estimated using ferric thiocyanate (FTC) and thiobarbituric acid (TBA) method. Both LGSW and LGSE strongly inhibited lipid peroxidation. Especially, LGSE showed a protective effect through increasing cell viability, decreasing intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) against tert-butyl hydroperoxide-induced oxidative stress in Chang cells. Furthermore, LGSE increased antioxidant related enzyme activities such as catalase, glutathione S-transferase, glutathione peroxidase, and superoxide dismutase gene expression against oxidative stress in a zebrafish model. Our findings suggest that LGSE could be useful for developing potential therapeutic agents with protective effects against oxidative stress.

Black Rice (Oryza sativa L.) Fermented with Lactobacillus casei Attenuates Osteoclastogenesis and Ovariectomy-Induced Osteoporosis.

The aim of the present study was to investigate the antiosteoclastogenic effects of black rice (Oryza sativa L.) fermented with Lactobacillus casei (LAB) in RANKL-induced RAW macrophage cells and its antiosteoporosis activity against ovariectomy-induced osteoporosis in rats. LAB extract (LABE) treatment attenuated receptor activator of nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) ligand-induced osteoclastic differentiation in RAW cells by inhibiting intercellular reactive oxygen species generation and downregulating the activation of mitogen-activated protein kinases and NF-κB, leading to the downregulation of c-Fos and expression of nuclear factor of activated T cells c1. This consequently suppressed the expression of osteoclast-specific genes including those for cathepsin K, tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase, calcitonin receptor, and integrin ß3. Oral administration of LABE protected against ovariectomy-induced bone loss by significantly inhibiting bone architecture alterations and improving serum bone turnover markers in ovariectomized rats. The findings suggest that the antiosteoporotic activity of LABE may be derived from its antiosteoclastic and anti-bone-resorptive activities. LABE has potential as a promising functional material or substrate to prepare protective agents for osteoporosis and osteoclast-mediated bone diseases.

Diets, functional foods, and nutraceuticals as alternative therapies for inflammatory bowel disease: Present status and future trends.

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a serious health concern among western societies. The disease is also on the rise in some East Asian countries and in Australia. Health professionals and dietitians around the world are facing an unprecedented challenge to prevent and control the increasing prevalence of IBD. The current therapeutic strategy that includes drugs and biological treatments is inefficient and are associated with adverse health consequences. In this context, the use of natural products is gaining worldwide attention. In vivo studies and clinical evidence suggest that well-planned dietary regimens with specific nutrients can alleviate gastrointestinal inflammation by modulating inflammatory cytokines, such as tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α), interleukin 1 (IL-1), IL-6, IL-1ß, and IL-10. Alternatively, the avoidance of high-fat and high-carbohydrate diets is regarded as an effective tool to eliminate the causes of IBD. Many functional foods and bioactive components have received attention for showing strong therapeutic effects against IBD. Both animal and human studies suggest that bioactive functional foods can ameliorate IBD by downregulating the pro-inflammatory signaling pathways, such as nuclear factor κB, STAT1, STAT6, and pro-inflammatory cytokines, including IL-1ß, IL-4, IL-6, COX-2, TNF-α, and interferon γ. Therefore, functional foods and diets have the potential to alleviate IBD by modulating the underlying pathogenic mechanisms. Future comprehensive studies are needed to corroborate the potential roles of functional foods and diets in the prevention and control of IBD.

The Effects of Aronia melanocarpa 'Viking' Extracts in Attenuating RANKL-Induced Osteoclastic Differentiation by Inhibiting ROS Generation and c-FOS/NFATc1 Signaling.

This study aimed to determine the anti-osteoclastogenic effects of extracts from Aronia melanocarpa 'Viking' (AM) and identify the underlying mechanisms in vitro. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are signal mediators in osteoclast differentiation. AM extracts inhibited ROS production in RAW 264.7 cells in a dose-dependent manner and exhibited strong radical scavenging activity. The extracts also attenuated the number of tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase (TRAP)-positive multinucleated osteoclasts. To attain molecular insights, the effect of the extracts on the signaling pathways induced by receptor activator of nuclear factor kappa B ligand (RANKL) were also investigated. RANKL triggers many transcription factors through the activation of mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) and ROS, leading to the induction of osteoclast-specific genes. The extracts significantly suppressed RANKL-induced activation of MAPKs, such as extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), c-Jun-N-terminal kinase (JNK) and p38 and consequently led to the downregulation of c-Fos and nuclear factor of activated T cells 1 (NFATc1) protein expression which ultimately suppress the activation of the osteoclast-specific genes, cathepsin K, TRAP, calcitonin receptor and integrin ß3. In conclusion, our findings suggest that AM extracts inhibited RANKL-induced osteoclast differentiation by downregulating ROS generation and inactivating JNK/ERK/p38, nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB)-mediated c-Fos and NFATc1 signaling pathway.

Cognitive Improving Effects by Highbush Blueberry (Vaccinium crymbosum L.) Vinegar on Scopolamine-Induced Amnesia Mice Model.

The present study aimed to evaluate the preventive effects of highbush blueberry (Vaccinium corymbosum L.) vinegar (BV) on cognitive functions in a scopolamine (Sco)-induced amnesia model in mice. In this study, Sco (1 mg/kg, intraperitoneal injection) was used to induce amnesia. ICR mice were orally administered donepezil (5 mg/kg), blueberry extract (120 mg/kg), and BV (120 mg/kg) for 7 days. After inducing cognitive impairment by Sco, a behavioral assessment using behavior tests (i.e., Y-maze and passive avoidance tests) was performed. The BV group showed significantly restored cognitive function in the behavioral tests. BV facilitated cholinergic activity by inhibiting acetylcholinesterase activity, and enhanced antioxidant enzyme activity. Furthermore, BV was found to be rehabilitated in the cornu ammonis 1 neurons of hippocampus. In our study, we demonstrated that the memory protection conferred by BV was linked to activation of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF)/cAMP response element binding protein (CREB)/serine-threonine kinase (AKT) signaling.

Inhibition of NAT10 Suppresses Melanogenesis and Melanoma Growth by Attenuating Microphthalmia-Associated Transcription Factor (MITF) Expression.

N-acetyltransferase 10 (NAT10) has been considered a target for the treatment of human diseases such as cancer and laminopathies; however, its functional role in the biology of melanocytes is questionable. Using a small molecule or small interfering RNA targeting NAT10, we examined the effect of NAT10 inhibition on melanogenesis and melanoma growth in human and mouse melanoma cells. Genetic silencing or chemical inhibition of NAT10 resulted in diminished melanin synthesis through the suppression of melanogenesis-stimulating genes such as those encoding dopachrome tautomerase (DCT) and tyrosinase in B16F10 melanoma cells. In addition, NAT10 inhibition significantly increased cell cycle arrest in S-phase, thereby suppressing the growth and proliferation of malignant melanoma cells in vitro and in vivo. These results demonstrate the potential role of NAT10 in melanogenesis and melanoma growth through the regulation of microphthalmia-associated transcription factor (MITF) expression and provide a promising strategy for the treatment of various skin diseases (melanoma) and pigmentation disorders (chloasma and freckles).

Vanillin Suppresses Cell Motility by Inhibiting STAT3-Mediated HIF-1α mRNA Expression in Malignant Melanoma Cells.

Recent studies have shown that vanillin has anti-cancer, anti-mutagenic, and anti-metastatic activity; however, the precise molecular mechanism whereby vanillin inhibits metastasis and cancer progression is not fully elucidated. In this study, we examined whether vanillin has anti-cancer and anti-metastatic activities via inhibition of hypoxia-inducible factor-1α (HIF-1α) in A2058 and A375 human malignant melanoma cells. Immunoblotting and quantitative real time (RT)-PCR analysis revealed that vanillin down-regulates HIF-1α protein accumulation and the transcripts of HIF-1α target genes related to cancer metastasis including fibronectin 1 (FN1), lysyl oxidase-like 2 (LOXL2), and urokinase plasminogen activator receptor (uPAR). It was also found that vanillin significantly suppresses HIF-1α mRNA expression and de novo HIF-1α protein synthesis. To understand the suppressive mechanism of vanillin on HIF-1α expression, chromatin immunoprecipitation was performed. Consequently, it was found that vanillin causes inhibition of promoter occupancy by signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3), but not nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB), on HIF1A. Furthermore, an in vitro migration assay revealed that the motility of melanoma cells stimulated by hypoxia was attenuated by vanillin treatment. In conclusion, we demonstrate that vanillin might be a potential anti-metastatic agent that suppresses metastatic gene expression and migration activity under hypoxia via the STAT3-HIF-1α signaling pathway.

Preventive and therapeutic effects of blueberry (Vaccinium corymbosum) extract against DSS-induced ulcerative colitis by regulation of antioxidant and inflammatory mediators.

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is an inflammatory disorder caused by hyperactivation of effector immune cells that produce high levels of proinflammatory cytokines. The aims of our study were to determine whether orally administered blueberry extract (BE) could attenuate or prevent the development of experimental colitis in mice and to elucidate the mechanism of action. Female Balb/C mice (n=7) were randomized into groups differing in treatment conditions (prevention and treatment) and dose of BE (50 mg/kg body weight). Acute ulcerative colitis was induced by oral administration of 3% dextran sodium sulfate for 7 days in drinking water. Colonic mucosal injury was assessed by clinical, macroscopic, biochemical and histopathological examinations. BE significantly decreased disease activity index and improved the macroscopic and histological score of colons when compared to the colitis group (P<.05). BE markedly attenuated myeloperoxidase accumulation (colitis group 54.97±2.78 nmol/mg, treatment group 30.78±1.33 nmol/mg) and malondialdehyde in colon and prostaglandin E2 level in serum while increasing the levels of superoxide dismutase and catalase (colitis group 11.94±1.16 U/ml, BE treatment group 16.49±0.39 U/ml) compared with the colitis group (P<.05). mRNA levels of the cyclooxygenase (COX)-2, interferon-γ, interleukin (IL)-1ß and inducible nitric oxide synthase cytokines were determined by reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction. Immunohistochemical analysis showed that BE attenuates the expression of COX-2 and IL-1ß in colonic tissue. Moreover, BE reduced the nuclear translocation of nuclear transcription factor kappa B (NF-κB) by immunofluorescence analysis. Thus, the anti-inflammatory effect of BE at colorectal sites is a result of a number of mechanisms: antioxidation, down-regulation of the expression of inflammatory mediators and inhibition of the nuclear translocation of NF-κB.

Oxidative Dimerization of PHD2 is Responsible for its Inactivation and Contributes to Metabolic Reprogramming via HIF-1α Activation.

Prolyl hydroxylase domain protein 2 (PHD2) belongs to an evolutionarily conserved superfamily of 2-oxoglutarate and Fe(II)-dependent dioxygenases that mediates homeostatic responses to oxygen deprivation by mediating hypoxia-inducible factor-1α (HIF-1α) hydroxylation and degradation. Although oxidative stress contributes to the inactivation of PHD2, the precise molecular mechanism of PHD2 inactivation independent of the levels of co-factors is not understood. Here, we identified disulfide bond-mediated PHD2 homo-dimer formation in response to oxidative stress caused by oxidizing agents and oncogenic H-ras(V12) signalling. Cysteine residues in the double-stranded ß-helix fold that constitutes the catalytic site of PHD isoforms appeared responsible for the oxidative dimerization. Furthermore, we demonstrated that disulfide bond-mediated PHD2 dimerization is associated with the stabilization and activation of HIF-1α under oxidative stress. Oncogenic H-ras(V12) signalling facilitates the accumulation of HIF-1α in the nucleus and promotes aerobic glycolysis and lactate production. Moreover, oncogenic H-ras(V12) does not trigger aerobic glycolysis in antioxidant-treated or PHD2 knocked-down cells, suggesting the participation of the ROS-mediated PHD2 inactivation in the oncogenic H-ras(V12)-mediated metabolic reprogramming. We provide here a better understanding of the mechanism by which disulfide bond-mediated PHD2 dimerization and inactivation result in the activation of HIF-1α and aerobic glycolysis in response to oxidative stress.

Inhibition of glutamine utilization sensitizes lung cancer cells to apigenin-induced apoptosis resulting from metabolic and oxidative stress.

Recent studies have shown anticancer activity of apigenin by suppressing glucose transporter 1 (GLUT1) expression in cultured cancer cells; however, it is not clear whether apigenin can suppress glucose metabolism in lung cancer cells or sensitize them to inhibition of glutamine utilization-mediated apoptosis through metabolic and oxidative stress. We show that apigenin significantly decreases GLUT1 expression in mice. Furthermore, we demonstrate that apigenin induces growth retardation and apoptosis through metabolic and oxidative stress caused by suppression of glucose utilization in lung cancer cells. The underlying mechanisms were defined that the anticancer effects of apigenin were reversed by ectopic GLUT1 overexpression and galactose supplementation, through activation of pentose phosphate pathway-mediated NADPH generation. Importantly, we showed that severe metabolic stress using a glutaminase inhibitor, compound 968, was involved in the mechanism of sensitization by apigenin. Taken together, the combination of apigenin with inhibitors of glutamine metabolism may provide a promising therapeutic strategy for cancer treatment.

Apigenin Attenuates Melanoma Cell Migration by Inducing Anoikis through Integrin and Focal Adhesion Kinase Inhibition.

Apigenin, a nonmutagenic flavonoid, has been found to have antitumor properties and is therefore particularly relevant for the development of chemotherapeutic agents for cancers. In this study, time- and dose-dependent cell viability and cytotoxicity were assessed to determine the effects of apigenin on A2058 and A375 melanoma cells. Melanoma cells were pretreated with different concentrations of apigenin and analyzed for morphological changes, anoikis induction, cell migration, and levels of proteins associated with apoptosis. Apigenin reduced integrin protein levels and inhibited the phosphorylation of focal adhesion kinase (FAK) and extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK1/2), which induce anoikis in human cutaneous melanoma cells. Apigenin exhibited dose-dependent inhibition of melanoma cell migration, unlike untreated controls. Furthermore, apigenin treatment increased apoptotic factors such as caspase-3 and cleaved poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase in a dose-dependent manner, demonstrating the metastasis of melanoma cells. Our results provide a new insight into the mechanisms by which apigenin prevents melanoma metastasis by sensitizing anoikis induced by the loss of integrin proteins in the FAK/ERK1/2 signaling pathway. These findings elucidate the related mechanisms and suggest the potential of apigenin in developing clinical treatment strategies against malignant melanoma.