Being small for gestational age is not an independent risk factor for mortality in neonates with congenital diaphragmatic hernia: a multicenter study.

BACKGROUND: Congenital diaphragmatic hernia (CDH) accounts for 8% of all major congenital anomalies. Neonates who are small for gestational age (SGA) generally have a poorer prognosis. We sought to identify risk factors and variables associated with outcomes in neonates with CDH who are SGA in comparison to neonates who are appropriate for gestational age (AGA). METHODS: We used the multicenter Diaphragmatic Hernia Research & Exploration Advancing Molecular Science (DHREAMS) study to include neonates enrolled from 2005 to 2019. Chi-squared or Fisher's exact tests were used to compare categorical variables and t tests or Wilcoxon rank sum for continuous variables. Cox model analyzed time to event outcomes and logistic regression analyzed binary outcomes. RESULTS: 589 neonates were examined. Ninety were SGA (15.3%). SGA patients were more likely to be female (p = 0.003), have a left sided CDH (p = 0.05), have additional congenital anomalies and be diagnosed with a genetic syndrome (p < 0.001). On initial single-variable analysis, SGA correlated with higher frequency of death prior to discharge (p < 0.001) and supplemental oxygen requirement at 28 days (p = 0.005). Twice as many SGA patients died before repair (12.2% vs 6.4%, p = 0.04). Using unadjusted Cox model, the risk of death prior to discharge among SGA patients was 1.57 times the risk for AGA patients (p = 0.029). There was no correlation between SGA and need for ECMO, pulmonary hypertensive medication at discharge or oxygen at discharge. After adjusting for confounding variables, SGA no longer correlated with mortality prior to discharge or incidence of unrepaired defects but remained significant for oxygen requirement at 28 days (p = 0.03). CONCLUSION: Infants with CDH who are SGA have worse survival and poorer lung function than AGA infants. However, the outcome of SGA neonates is impacted by other factors including gestational age, genetic syndromes, and particularly congenital anomalies that contribute heavily to their poorer prognosis.

Spinal Imaging Findings of Open Spinal Dysraphisms on Fetal and Postnatal MRI.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Fetal MRI has become a valuable tool in the evaluation of open spinal dysraphisms making studies comparing prenatal and postnatal MRI findings increasingly important. Our aim was to determine the accuracy of predicting the level of the spinal dysraphic defect of open spinal dysraphisms on fetal MR imaging and to report additional findings observed when comparing fetal and postnatal MR imaging of the spine in this population. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A single-center retrospective analysis was performed of fetal MRIs with open spinal dysraphisms from 2004 through 2016 with available diagnostic postnatal spine MR imaging. Images were reviewed by 2 board-certified fellowship-trained pediatric neuroradiologists. Corresponding clinical/operative reports were reviewed. RESULTS: One hundred nineteen fetal MRIs of open spinal dysraphisms were included. The level of the osseous defect between fetal and postnatal MR imaging was concordant in 42.9% (51/119) of cases and was 1 level different in 39% (47/119) of cases. On postnatal MR imaging, type II split cord malformation was seen in 8.4% (10/119) of cases, with only 50% (5/10) of these cases identified prospectively on fetal MR imaging. Syrinx was noted in 3% (4/119) of prenatal studies, all cervical, all confirmed on postnatal MR imaging. CONCLUSIONS: Fetal MR imaging is accurate in detecting the level of the spinal dysraphic defect, which has an impact on prenatal counseling, neurologic outcomes, and eligibility for fetal surgery. In addition, fetal MR imaging is limited in its ability to detect split cord malformations in patients with open spinal dysraphisms. Although rare, fetal MR imaging has a high specificity for detection of cervical spinal cord syrinx.

Prenatal Factors Associated with Postnatal Brain Injury in Infants with Congenital Diaphragmatic Hernia.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Approximately 60% of infants with congenital diaphragmatic hernia have evidence of brain injury on postnatal MR imaging. It is unclear whether any brain injury is present before birth. In this study, we evaluated fetal MR imaging findings of brain injury and the association of congenital diaphragmatic hernia severity with postnatal brain injury. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Fetal MR imaging and postnatal brain MR imaging were retrospectively evaluated in 36 cases of congenital diaphragmatic hernia (from 2009 to 2014) by 2 pediatric neuroradiologists. Brain injury on postnatal MR imaging and brain injury and congenital diaphragmatic hernia severity on fetal MR imaging were recorded. Correlations between brain abnormalities on fetal and postnatal brain MR imaging were analyzed. Postnatal brain injury findings correlating with the severity of congenital diaphragmatic hernia were also assessed. RESULTS: On fetal MR imaging, enlarged extra-axial spaces (61%), venous sinus distention (21%), and ventriculomegaly (6%) were identified. No maturational delay, intracranial hemorrhage, or brain parenchymal injury was identified on fetal MR imaging. On postnatal MR imaging, 67% of infants had evidence of abnormality, commonly, enlarged extra-axial spaces (44%). Right-sided congenital diaphragmatic hernia was associated with a greater postnatal brain injury score (P = .05). Low observed-to-expected lung volume was associated with postnatal white matter injury (P = .005) and a greater postnatal brain injury score (P = .008). Lack of liver herniation was associated with normal postnatal brain MR imaging findings (P = .03). CONCLUSIONS: Fetal lung hypoplasia is associated with postnatal brain injury in congenital diaphragmatic hernia, suggesting that the severity of lung disease and associated treatments affect brain health as well. We found no evidence of prenatal brain parenchymal injury or maturational delay.

Correlation of MRI Brain Injury Findings with Neonatal Clinical Factors in Infants with Congenital Diaphragmatic Hernia.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Infants with congenital diaphragmatic hernia are reported to have evidence of brain MR imaging abnormalities. Our study aimed to identify perinatal clinical factors in infants with congenital diaphragmatic hernia that are associated with evidence of brain injury on MR imaging performed before hospital discharge. MATERIALS AND METHODS: MRIs performed before hospital discharge in infants with congenital diaphragmatic hernia were scored for brain injury by 2 pediatric neuroradiologists. Perinatal variables and clinical variables from the neonatal intensive care unit stay were analyzed for potential associations with brain MR imaging findings. RESULTS: Fifty-three infants with congenital diaphragmatic hernia (31 boys) were included. At least 1 abnormality was seen on MR imaging in 32 infants (60%). The most common MR imaging findings were enlarged extra-axial spaces (36%), intraventricular hemorrhage (23%), ventriculomegaly (19%), white matter injury (17%), and cerebellar hemorrhage (17%). The MR imaging brain injury score was associated with extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (P = .0001), lack of oral feeding at discharge (P = .012), use of inotropes (P = .027), and gastrostomy tube placement before hospital discharge (P = .024). The MR imaging brain injury score was also associated with a large diaphragmatic defect size (P = .011). CONCLUSIONS: Most infants with congenital diaphragmatic hernia have at least 1 abnormality identified on MR imaging of the brain performed before discharge. The main predictors of brain injury in this population are a requirement for extracorporeal membrane oxygenation, large diaphragmatic defect size, and lack of oral feeding at discharge.

Favorable outcomes in high-risk congenital pulmonary airway malformations treated with multiple courses of maternal betamethasone.

BACKGROUND/PURPOSE: Congenital pulmonary airway malformations (CPAMs) are rare congenital lung lesions often diagnosed by prenatal ultrasound. High-risk cases can result in hydrops and prenatal or postnatal demise. Antenatal betamethasone has resulted in improved survival but it is unclear how to manage patients who do not respond to a single course. METHODS: We present a bi-institutional retrospective review of patients treated with multiple courses of prenatal steroids for high-risk CPAMs between 2007 and 2013. RESULTS: Nine patients met inclusion criteria. All but one either had an increased CPAM volume ratio (CVR) or number of fluid-containing compartments involved after a single course of antenatal betamethasone, prompting additional courses. Four patients stabilized, three improved and two progressed after the second course. The two cases with disease progression underwent an in utero resection. There were one in utero fetal demise and two deaths within the delivery room. Both fetuses that underwent a fetal resection died. All but one mother who delivered a viable fetus had complications of pregnancy. CONCLUSIONS: Multiple courses of antenatal betamethasone for high-risk fetal CPAMs often result in favorable short-term outcomes without the need for open fetal resection. Pregnancy complications are common and women within this cohort should be monitored closely.

Assessment of fetal cardiomyopathy in early-stage twin-twin transfusion syndrome: comparison between commonly reported cardiovascular assessment scores.

OBJECTIVES: To assess the relationship between commonly reported fetal cardiomyopathy scoring systems in early-stage twin-twin transfusion syndrome (TTTS). METHODS: We reviewed retrospectively 100 cases of Quintero Stages I and II TTTS referred to our center for evaluation from 2008 to 2010. The cases were divided into groups of 25, representing each of four grades of TTTS cardiomyopathy as assessed by Cincinnati stage: no cardiomyopathy, Stage IIIa, Stage IIIb and Stage IIIc. Spearman correlation (rs ) was calculated between the Children's Hospital of Philadelphia (CHOP) score, cardiovascular profile score (CVPS), Cincinnati stage and myocardial performance index (MPI). RESULTS: There was a weak correlation between the Cincinnati stage and the CHOP score (rs = 0.36) and CVPS (rs = -0.39), while correlation was strong between the CHOP score and CVPS (rs = -0.72). MPI elevation was concordant with Cincinnati stage more frequently (82% of cases) than were ventricular hypertrophy (43%) or atrioventricular valve regurgitation (28%). 51% of fetuses with minimally elevated CHOP score (0-1) and 48% of fetuses with minimally depressed CVPS (9-10) had significant elevation (Z-score ≥ +3) in right ventricular or left ventricular MPI. CONCLUSIONS: MPI has a strong influence on grading the severity of fetal cardiomyopathy using the Cincinnati stage among fetuses with mild TTTS. Furthermore, significant elevation of the MPI is common among fetuses with mild disease as assessed by the CHOP score and CVPS. These differences should be understood when assessing and grading cardiomyopathy in TTTS, particularly in early (Quintero Stages I and II) disease.

Prevalence and progression of recipient-twin cardiomyopathy in early-stage twin-twin transfusion syndrome.

OBJECTIVE: The management of twin-twin transfusion syndrome (TTTS) in its early stages (Quintero Stages I and II) is controversial. We describe the prevalence, severity, incidence and rate of progression of recipient-twin cardiomyopathy in Stages I and II TTTS. METHODS: Among 451 cases of TTTS evaluated between 2004 and 2009, 123 (27.3%) cases of Stages I and II were reviewed. Echocardiography was used to 'upstage' cases based on the presence or absence of mild (IIIA), moderate (IIIB), or severe (IIIC) recipient cardiomyopathy. Progression was defined by worsening in the degree of recipient-twin cardiomyopathy from initial presentation or failure to respond to amnioreduction. Outcome data included progression of recipient-twin cardiomyopathy, treatment and survival to birth. Data were compared by the chi-square, Fisher's exact test or t-test as appropriate. RESULTS: Seventy-seven of 123 (62.6%) cases were Quintero Stage I and 46/123 (37.4%) Quintero Stage II. Eighty (65.0%) were upstaged to Cincinnati Stage IIIA (n = 25), IIIB (n = 23) or IIIC (n = 32). Management included observation in 11 (8.9%), amnioreduction in 26 (21.1%), amnioreduction followed by selective fetoscopic laser photocoagulation (SFLP) in 43 (35.0%) and primary SFLP in 43 (35.0%). Of 80 cases managed by observation or amnioreduction initially, 43 (53.8%) progressed within a mean duration of 1.4 ± 1.5 weeks. The incidence of progression increased significantly as degree of recipient-twin cardiomyopathy at presentation worsened: Stage I, 9/27 (33.3%); Stage II, 8/15 (53.3%); Stage IIIA, 8/16 (50.0%); Stage IIIB, 10/10 (100%); and Stage IIIC, 8/12 (66.7%) (χ(2) = 14, P < 0.01). Overall fetal survival was 205 out of 244 (84.0%). Fetal survival with observation only was 81.8% (18/22), with amnioreduction only it was 92.3% (48/52), with initial observation or amnioreduction followed by SFLP it was 86.9% (73/84) and with primary SFLP it was 76.7% (66/86). CONCLUSION: Echocardiography demonstrates a high incidence of recipient-twin cardiomyopathy in early-stage TTTS. The more advanced the recipient-twin cardiomyopathy is, the more likely is progression to occur during observation or following amnioreduction.

TdTomato and EGFP identification in histological sections: insight and alternatives.

Tandem dimer Tomato (tdTomato) provides a useful alternative to enhanced green fluorescent protein (eGFP) for performing simultaneous detection of fluorescent protein in histological sections together with fluorescence immunohistochemistry (IHC). eGFP has many properties that make it useful for cell labeling; however, during simultaneous fluorescence IHC, the usefulness of eGFP may be limited. This limitation results from a fixation step required to identify eGFP in histological tissue sections that can mask antibody epitopes and adversely affect staining intensity. An alternative fluorescent protein, tdTomato, may assist concurrent detection of fluorescent protein within tissue sections and fluorescence IHC, because detection of tdTomato does not require tissue fixation. Tissue sections were obtained from various organs of mice ubiquitously expressing eGFP or tdTomato that were either unfixed or fixed with 4% paraformaldehyde. These tissues later were combined with fluorescence IHC. Both eGFP and tdTomato displayed robust signals in fixed frozen sections. Only tdTomato fluorescence, however, was detected in unfixed frozen sections. Simultaneous detection of fluorescence IHC and fluorescent protein in histological sections was observed only in unfixed frozen tdTomato tissue. For this reason, tdTomato is a useful substitute for eGFP for cell labeling when simultaneous fluorescence IHC is required.