Synthesis and properties of metal-ligand complexes with endohedral amine functionality.

A series of tetracationic M(2)L(4) palladium-pyridyl complexes with endohedral amine functionality have been synthesized. The complexes were analyzed by NMR techniques (including Diffusion NMR and 2D NOESY), electrospray ionization (ESI) mass spectrometry, and X-ray crystallography. The solid state analysis shows a large change in crystal morphology upon introduction of the endohedral amine groups, caused by deleterious interactions between the amines and the triflate counterions from the coordination process. Combination of different ligands allows analysis of ligand exchange rates via NMR analysis, with half-lives on the order of 3 h, independent of the donor properties of the ligand. Self-sorting behavior is observed, with more electron-rich ligands being favored. The amine-containing and extended complexes are strongly fluorescent, giving quantum yields of up to 83%.

The efficient structure elucidation of minor components in heparin digests using microcoil NMR.

The structural complexity and microheterogeneity of the glycosaminoglycans heparin and heparan sulfate make their characterization a daunting task. The methodology described herein utilizes a combination of enzymatic digestion, size-exclusion chromatography, strong anion-exchange HPLC, reverse-phase ion-pair ultrahigh performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry, and microcoil NMR for the efficient sequencing of heparin-derived tetrasaccharides. The high mass sensitivity of microcoil NMR makes this technique well suited for the characterization of mass-limited samples removing a bottleneck in the analysis workflow and permitting structural characterization of minor components isolated from a heparin enzymatic digestion. Complete characterization of one tetrasulfonated, five pentasulfonated isomers and two hexasulfonated tetrasaccharide sequences is described. To our knowledge, two of the identified minor tetrasaccharides are unique, and have not been previously reported: IdoA(2S)-GlcNS(6S)-IdoA(2S)-GlcNS(6S) and ΔUA(2S)-GlcNS(6S)-IdoA-GlcNS(6S).

Heparin characterization: challenges and solutions.

Although heparin is an important and widely prescribed pharmaceutical anticoagulant, its high degree of sequence microheterogeneity and size polydispersity make molecular-level characterization challenging. Unlike nucleic acids and proteins that are biosynthesized through template-driven assembly processes, heparin and the related glycosaminoglycan heparan sulfate are actively remodeled during biosynthesis through a series of enzymatic reactions that lead to variable levels of O- and N-sulfonation and uronic acid epimers. As summarized in this review, heparin sequence information is determined through a bottom-up approach that relies on depolymerization reactions, size- and charge-based separations, and sensitive mass spectrometric and nuclear magnetic resonance experiments to determine the structural identity of component oligosaccharides. The structure-elucidation process, along with its challenges and opportunities for future analytical improvements, is reviewed and illustrated for a heparin-derived hexasaccharide.

Getting to know the nitrogen next door: HNMBC measurements of amino sugars.

Long-range ¹H-¹5N correlations detected by the heteronuclear multiple-bond correlation (HMBC) experiment are explored for the characterization of amino sugars. The gradient-enhanced HMBC, IMPACT-HMBC, and a modified pulse sequence with the ¹J-filters removed, IMPACT-HNMBC, are compared for sensitivity and resolution. ¹5N chemical shifts and long-range proton correlations are reported using the IMPACT-HNMBC experiment for N-acetyl-glucosamine, N-acetyl-galactosamine, and for a series of glucosamine analogs with an N-sulfo substitution, unmodified amino group, and 6-O-sulfonation. As is common with sugars, for all the compounds examined both anomeric forms are present in solution. For each compound studied, the ¹5N chemical shifts of the α anomer are downfield of the ß form. For the N-acetylated sugars, the ß anomer has a unique long-range ¹5N correlation to the anomeric proton not observed for the α anomer. Though N-sulfonation results in a significant change in the ¹5N chemical shift of the glucosamine analogs, 6-O sulfo substitution has no significant effect on the local environment of the amino nitrogen. For N-acetylated sugars in D2O solution, peaks in the ¹5N projection of the HMBC spectrum appear as triplets as a result of J-modulation due to ²H-¹5N coupling.

NMR methods to monitor the enzymatic depolymerization of heparin.

Heparin and the related glycosaminoglycan, heparan sulfate, are polydisperse linear polysaccharides that mediate numerous biological processes due to their interaction with proteins. Because of the structural complexity and heterogeneity of heparin and heparan sulfate, digestion to produce smaller oligosaccharides is commonly performed prior to separation and analysis. Current techniques used to monitor the extent of heparin depolymerization include UV absorption to follow product formation and size exclusion or strong anion exchange chromatography to monitor the size distribution of the components in the digest solution. In this study, we used (1)H nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) survey spectra and NMR diffusion experiments in conjunction with UV absorption measurements to monitor heparin depolymerization using the enzyme heparinase I. Diffusion NMR does not require the physical separation of the components in the reaction mixture and instead can be used to monitor the reaction solution directly in the NMR tube. Using diffusion NMR, the enzymatic reaction can be stopped at the desired time point, maximizing the abundance of larger oligosaccharides for protein-binding studies or completion of the reaction if the goal of the study is exhaustive digestion for characterization of the disaccharide composition. In this study, porcine intestinal mucosa heparin was depolymerized using the enzyme heparinase I. The unsaturated bond formed by enzymatic cleavage serves as a UV chromophore that can be used to monitor the progress of the depolymerization and for the detection and quantification of oligosaccharides in subsequent separations. The double bond also introduces a unique multiplet with peaks at 5.973, 5.981, 5.990, and 5.998 ppm in the (1)H-NMR spectrum downfield of the anomeric region. This multiplet is produced by the proton of the C-4 double bond of the non-reducing end uronic acid at the cleavage site. Changes in this resonance were used to monitor the progression of the enzymatic digestion and compared to the profile obtained from UV absorbance measurements. In addition, in situ NMR diffusion measurements were explored for their ability to profile the different-sized components generated over the course of the digestion.

Analysis and characterization of heparin impurities.

This review discusses recent developments in analytical methods available for the sensitive separation, detection and structural characterization of heparin contaminants. The adulteration of raw heparin with oversulfated chondroitin sulfate (OSCS) in 2007-2008 spawned a global crisis resulting in extensive revisions to the pharmacopeia monographs on heparin and prompting the FDA to recommend the development of additional physicochemical methods for the analysis of heparin purity. The analytical chemistry community quickly responded to this challenge, developing a wide variety of innovative approaches, several of which are reported in this special issue. This review provides an overview of methods of heparin isolation and digestion, discusses known heparin contaminants, including OSCS, and summarizes recent publications on heparin impurity analysis using sensors, near-IR, Raman, and NMR spectroscopy, as well as electrophoretic and chromatographic separations.

Characterization of heparin impurities with HPLC-NMR using weak anion exchange chromatography.

A weak anion exchange (WAX) chromatography method coupled to online UV and NMR detection was developed for the separation and structural identification of heparin impurities. This work describes the separation of dermatan sulfate, chondroitin sulfate A, heparin, and the semisynthetic fully sulfated chondroitin sulfate, FSCS, through a displacement-based mechanism. The WAX separation requires significantly less salt than comparable strong anion exchange chromatography, facilitating NMR detection using a standard commercially produced flow probe. Retention and elution of both heparin and FSCS were found to be highly dependent on pH/pD and salt concentration. The elution time of each analyte could be controlled simply by adjusting a delay prior to introduction of the appropriate salt concentration, with little impact of the extent of the delay on chromatographic peak shape. Both on-flow and stop-flow proton ((1)H) NMR spectra were acquired to monitor and identify eluting components following separation. The approach described for the online separation of heparin and its potential impurities adds to the arsenal of techniques available for the rapid identification of new natural and/or intentional contaminants that may be introduced into the heparin supply chain.

Heterogeneity of depolymerized heparin SEC fractions: to pool or not to pool?

In the structural analysis of heparin and heparan sulfate, it is customary to combine or pool like-sized fractions obtained by size-exclusion chromatography (SEC) of enzymatically derived heparin oligosaccharides. In this study, we examine the heterogeneity of preparative-scale SEC fractions obtained from enzymatic digests of porcine intestinal mucosa heparin. Each fraction was profiled by capillary electrophoresis with UV detection (CE-UV) using a 60 mM formic acid running buffer at pH 3.43. Differences in the composition and relative concentration of components of the SEC fractions were observed for disaccharides and larger oligosaccharides. The heterogeneity of the fractions becomes more pronounced when heparin is digested using a heparin lyase cocktail. The heterogeneity of preparative SEC fractions was further investigated by reversed-phase ion-pairing ultraperformance liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (RPIP-UPLC-MS) using the ion-pairing reagent, tributylamine (Bu(3)N). Our results suggest that preliminary profiling of preparative SEC fractions prior to pooling may simplify efforts to identify and/or isolate rare structures.

Ultraperformance ion-pair liquid chromatography coupled to electrospray time-of-flight mass spectrometry for compositional profiling and quantification of heparin and heparan sulfate.

Heparin and heparan sulfate (HS) are important pharmaceutical targets because they bind a large number of proteins, including growth factors and cytokines, mediating many biological processes. Because of their biological significance and complexity, there is a need for development of rapid and sensitive analytical techniques for the characterization and compositional analysis of heparin and HS at the disaccharide level, as well as for the structure elucidation of larger glycosaminoglycan (GAG) sequences important for protein binding. In this work, we present a rapid method for analysis of disaccharide composition using reversed-phase ion-pairing ultraperformance liquid chromatography coupled with electrospray time-of-flight mass spectrometry ((RPIP)-UPLC-MS). Heparin disaccharide standards were eluted in less than 5 min. The method was used to determine the constituents of GAGs from unfractionated heparin/HS from various bovine and porcine tissues, and the results were compared with literature values.

Arsenic speciation study in some spring waters of Guam, Western Pacific Ocean.

A survey of the different forms of arsenic species: inorganic arsenic (As), As(III), As(V) and organic As(III) and (V) was carried out on spring waters located along Tumon Bay in Guam. The results show that total arsenic concentrations in the spring water samples ranged from <0.3-1.2 microg/L. Inorganic arsenate, As(V), appears to be the dominant species in the spring water samples tested. The concentrations are much lower than previously reported, probably due to a much more rigorous methodological approach and requires further investigations on the status of As contamination in groundwater on the island.