Lipofuscin-like autofluorescence within microglia and its impact on studying microglial engulfment.

Engulfment of cellular material and proteins is a key function for microglia, a resident macrophage of the central nervous system (CNS). Among the techniques used to measure microglial engulfment, confocal light microscopy has been used the most extensively. Here, we show that autofluorescence (AF) likely due to lipofuscin (lipo-AF) and typically associated with aging, can also be detected within microglial lysosomes in the young mouse brain by light microscopy. This lipo-AF signal accumulates first within microglia and it occurs earliest in white versus gray matter. Importantly, in gray matter, lipo-AF signal can confound the interpretation of antibody-labeled synaptic material within microglia in young adult mice. We further show that there is an age-dependent accumulation of lipo-AF inside and outside of microglia, which is not affected by amyloid plaques. We finally implement a robust and cost-effective strategy to quench AF in mouse, marmoset, and human brain tissue.

A 4D transcriptomic map for the evolution of multiple sclerosis-like lesions in the marmoset brain.

Single-time-point histopathological studies on postmortem multiple sclerosis (MS) tissue fail to capture lesion evolution dynamics, posing challenges for therapy development targeting development and repair of focal inflammatory demyelination. To close this gap, we studied experimental autoimmune encephalitis (EAE) in the common marmoset, the most faithful animal model of these processes. Using MRI-informed RNA profiling, we analyzed ~600,000 single-nucleus and ~55,000 spatial transcriptomes, comparing them against EAE inoculation status, longitudinal radiological signals, and histopathological features. We categorized 5 groups of microenvironments pertinent to neural function, immune and glial responses, tissue destruction and repair, and regulatory network at brain borders. Exploring perilesional microenvironment diversity, we uncovered central roles of EAE-associated astrocytes, oligodendrocyte precursor cells, and ependyma in lesion formation and resolution. We pinpointed imaging and molecular features capturing the pathological trajectory of WM, offering potential for assessing treatment outcomes using marmoset as a platform.

Mitophagy-related gene signature predicts prognosis, immune infiltration and chemotherapy sensitivity in colorectal cancer.

BACKGROUND: Mitophagy plays essential role in the development and progression of colorectal cancer (CRC). However, the effect of mitophagy-related genes in CRC remains largely unknown. AIM: To develop a mitophagy-related gene signature to predict the survival, immune infiltration and chemotherapy response of CRC patients. METHODS: Non-negative matrix factorization was used to cluster CRC patients from Gene Expression Omnibus database (GSE39582, GSE17536, and GSE37892) based on mitophagy-related gene expression. The CIBERSORT method was applied for the evaluation of the relative infiltration levels of immune cell types. The performance signature in predicting chemotherapeutic sensitivity was generated using data from the Genomics of Drug Sensitivity in Cancer database. RESULTS: Three clusters with different clinicopathological features and prognosis were identified. Higher enrichment of activated B cells and CD4+ T cells were observed in cluster III patients with the most favorable prognosis. Next, a risk model based on mitophagy-related genes was developed. Patients in training and validation sets were categorized into low-risk and high-risk subgroups. Low risk patients showed significantly better prognosis, higher enrichment of immune activating cells and greater response to chemotherapy (oxaliplatin, irinotecan, and 5-fluorouracil) compared to high-risk patients. Further experiments identified CXCL3 as novel regulator of cell proliferation and mitophagy. CONCLUSION: We revealed the biological roles of mitophagy-related genes in the immune infiltration, and its ability to predict patients' prognosis and response to chemotherapy in CRC. These interesting findings would provide new insight into the therapeutic management of CRC patients.

Lipofuscin-like autofluorescence within microglia and its impact on studying microglial engulfment.

Engulfment of cellular material and proteins is a key function for microglia, a resident macrophage of the central nervous system (CNS). Among the techniques used to measure microglial engulfment, confocal light microscopy has been used the most extensively. Here, we show that autofluorescence (AF), likely due to lipofuscin and typically associated with aging, can also be detected within microglial lysosomes in the young mouse brain by light microscopy. This lipofuscin-AF signal accumulates first within microglia and increases with age, but it is not exacerbated by amyloid beta-related neurodegeneration. We further show that this lipofuscin-AF signal within microglia can confound the interpretation of antibody-labeled synaptic material within microglia in young adult mice. Finally, we implement a robust strategy to quench AF in mouse, marmoset, and human brain tissue.

Transcriptomic architecture of nuclei in the marmoset CNS.

To understand the cellular composition and region-specific specialization of white matter - a disease-relevant, glia-rich tissue highly expanded in primates relative to rodents - we profiled transcriptomes of ~500,000 nuclei from 19 tissue types of the central nervous system of healthy common marmoset and mapped 87 subclusters spatially onto a 3D MRI atlas. We performed cross-species comparison, explored regulatory pathways, modeled regional intercellular communication, and surveyed cellular determinants of neurological disorders. Here, we analyze this resource and find strong spatial segregation of microglia, oligodendrocyte progenitor cells, and astrocytes. White matter glia are diverse, enriched with genes involved in stimulus-response and biomolecule modification, and predicted to interact with other resident cells more extensively than their gray matter counterparts. Conversely, gray matter glia preserve the expression of neural tube patterning genes into adulthood and share six transcription factors that restrict transcriptome complexity. A companion Callithrix jacchus Primate Cell Atlas (CjPCA) is available through https://cjpca.ninds.nih.gov .

A lymphocyte-microglia-astrocyte axis in chronic active multiple sclerosis.

Multiple sclerosis (MS) lesions that do not resolve in the months after they form harbour ongoing demyelination and axon degeneration, and are identifiable in vivo by their paramagnetic rims on MRI scans1-3. Here, to define mechanisms underlying this disabling, progressive neurodegenerative state4-6 and foster development of new therapeutic agents, we used MRI-informed single-nucleus RNA sequencing to profile the edge of demyelinated white matter lesions at various stages of inflammation. We uncovered notable glial and immune cell diversity, especially at the chronically inflamed lesion edge. We define 'microglia inflamed in MS' (MIMS) and 'astrocytes inflamed in MS', glial phenotypes that demonstrate neurodegenerative programming. The MIMS transcriptional profile overlaps with that of microglia in other neurodegenerative diseases, suggesting that primary and secondary neurodegeneration share common mechanisms and could benefit from similar therapeutic approaches. We identify complement component 1q (C1q) as a critical mediator of MIMS activation, validated immunohistochemically in MS tissue, genetically by microglia-specific C1q ablation in mice with experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis, and therapeutically by treating chronic experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis with C1q blockade. C1q inhibition is a potential therapeutic avenue to address chronic white matter inflammation, which could be monitored by longitudinal assessment of its dynamic biomarker, paramagnetic rim lesions, using advanced MRI methods.

Ultrahigh-resolution MRI Reveals Extensive Cortical Demyelination in a Nonhuman Primate Model of Multiple Sclerosis.

Cortical lesions are a primary driver of disability in multiple sclerosis (MS). However, noninvasive detection of cortical lesions with in vivo magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) remains challenging. Experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) in the common marmoset is a relevant animal model of MS for investigating the pathophysiological mechanisms leading to brain damage. This study aimed to characterize cortical lesions in marmosets with EAE using ultrahigh-field (7 T) MRI and histological analysis. Tissue preparation was optimized to enable the acquisition of high-spatial resolution (50-µm isotropic) T2*-weighted images. A total of 14 animals were scanned in this study, and 70% of the diseased animals presented at least one cortical lesion on postmortem imaging. Cortical lesions identified on MRI were verified with myelin proteolipid protein immunostaining. An optimized T2*-weighted sequence was developed for in vivo imaging and shown to capture 65% of cortical lesions detected postmortem. Immunostaining confirmed extensive demyelination with preserved neuronal somata in several cortical areas of EAE animals. Overall, this study demonstrates the relevance and feasibility of the marmoset EAE model to study cortical lesions, among the most important yet least understood features of MS.

Wnt5b integrates Fak1a to mediate gastrulation cell movements via Rac1 and Cdc42.

Focal adhesion kinase (FAK) mediates vital cellular pathways during development. Despite its necessity, how FAK regulates and integrates with other signals during early embryogenesis remains poorly understood. We found that the loss of Fak1a impaired epiboly, convergent extension and hypoblast cell migration in zebrafish embryos. We also observed a clear disturbance in cortical actin at the blastoderm margin and distribution of yolk syncytial nuclei. In addition, we investigated a possible link between Fak1a and a well-known gastrulation regulator, Wnt5b, and revealed that the overexpression of fak1a or wnt5b could cross-rescue convergence defects induced by a wnt5b or fak1a antisense morpholino (MO), respectively. Wnt5b and Fak1a were shown to converge in regulating Rac1 and Cdc42, which could synergistically rescue wnt5b and fak1a morphant phenotypes. Furthermore, we generated several alleles of fak1a mutants using CRISPR/Cas9, but those mutants only revealed mild gastrulation defects. However, injection of a subthreshold level of the wnt5b MO induced severe gastrulation defects in fak1a mutants, which suggested that the upregulated expression of wnt5b might complement the loss of Fak1a. Collectively, we demonstrated that a functional interaction between Wnt and FAK signalling mediates gastrulation cell movements via the possible regulation of Rac1 and Cdc42 and subsequent actin dynamics.

Protective role of the lipid phosphatase Fig4 in the adult nervous system.

The signaling lipid phosphatidylinositol 3,5-bisphosphate, PI(3,5)P2, functions in vesicular trafficking through the endo-lysosomal compartment. Cellular levels of PI(3,5)P2 are regulated by an enzyme complex comprised of the kinase PIKFYVE, the phosphatase FIG4, and the scaffold protein VAC14. Mutations of human FIG4 cause inherited disorders including Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease type 4J, polymicrogyria with epilepsy, and Yunis-Varón syndrome. Constitutive Fig4-/- mice exhibit intention tremor, spongiform degeneration of neural tissue, hypomyelination, and juvenile lethality. To determine whether PI(3,5)P2 is required in the adult, we generated Fig4flox/-; CAG-creER mice and carried out tamoxifen-induced gene ablation. Global ablation in adulthood leads to wasting, tremor, and motor impairment. Death follows within 2 months of tamoxifen treatment, demonstrating a life-long requirement for Fig4. Histological examinations of the sciatic nerve revealed profound Wallerian degeneration of myelinated fibers, but not C-fiber axons in Remak bundles. In optic nerve sections, myelinated fibers appear morphologically intact and carry compound action potentials at normal velocity and amplitude. However, when iKO mice are challenged with a chemical white matter lesion, repair of damaged CNS myelin is significantly delayed, demonstrating a novel role for Fig4 in remyelination. Thus, in the adult PNS Fig4 is required to protect myelinated axons from Wallerian degeneration. In the adult CNS, Fig4 is dispensable for fiber stability and nerve conduction, but is required for the timely repair of damaged white matter. The greater vulnerability of the PNS to Fig4 deficiency in the mouse is consistent with clinical observations in patients with Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease.

LRP1 regulates peroxisome biogenesis and cholesterol homeostasis in oligodendrocytes and is required for proper CNS myelin development and repair.

Low-density lipoprotein receptor-related protein-1 (LRP1) is a large endocytic and signaling molecule broadly expressed by neurons and glia. In adult mice, global inducible (Lrp1flox/flox;CAG-CreER) or oligodendrocyte (OL)-lineage specific ablation (Lrp1flox/flox;Pdgfra-CreER) of Lrp1 attenuates repair of damaged white matter. In oligodendrocyte progenitor cells (OPCs), Lrp1 is required for cholesterol homeostasis and differentiation into mature OLs. Lrp1-deficient OPC/OLs show a strong increase in the sterol-regulatory element-binding protein-2 yet are unable to maintain normal cholesterol levels, suggesting more global metabolic deficits. Mechanistic studies revealed a decrease in peroxisomal biogenesis factor-2 and fewer peroxisomes in OL processes. Treatment of Lrp1-/- OPCs with cholesterol or activation of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ with pioglitazone alone is not sufficient to promote differentiation; however, when combined, cholesterol and pioglitazone enhance OPC differentiation into mature OLs. Collectively, our studies reveal a novel role for Lrp1 in peroxisome biogenesis, lipid homeostasis, and OPC differentiation during white matter development and repair.

PI(3,5)P2 biosynthesis regulates oligodendrocyte differentiation by intrinsic and extrinsic mechanisms.

Proper development of the CNS axon-glia unit requires bi-directional communication between axons and oligodendrocytes (OLs). We show that the signaling lipid phosphatidylinositol-3,5-bisphosphate [PI(3,5)P2] is required in neurons and in OLs for normal CNS myelination. In mice, mutations of Fig4, Pikfyve or Vac14, encoding key components of the PI(3,5)P2 biosynthetic complex, each lead to impaired OL maturation, severe CNS hypomyelination and delayed propagation of compound action potentials. Primary OLs deficient in Fig4 accumulate large LAMP1(+) and Rab7(+) vesicular structures and exhibit reduced membrane sheet expansion. PI(3,5)P2 deficiency leads to accumulation of myelin-associated glycoprotein (MAG) in LAMP1(+)perinuclear vesicles that fail to migrate to the nascent myelin sheet. Live-cell imaging of OLs after genetic or pharmacological inhibition of PI(3,5)P2 synthesis revealed impaired trafficking of plasma membrane-derived MAG through the endolysosomal system in primary cells and brain tissue. Collectively, our studies identify PI(3,5)P2 as a key regulator of myelin membrane trafficking and myelinogenesis.

Osteoprotegerin contributes to the metastatic potential of cells with a dysfunctional TSC2 tumor-suppressor gene.

In addition to its effects on bone metabolism, osteoprotegerin (OPG), a soluble member of the tumor necrosis factor family of receptors, promotes smooth muscle cell proliferation and migration and may act as a survival factor for tumor cells. We hypothesized that these cellular mechanisms of OPG may be involved in the growth and proliferation of lymphangioleiomyomatosis (LAM) cells, abnormal smooth muscle-like cells with mutations in one of the tuberous sclerosis complex tumor-suppressor genes (TSC1/TSC2) that cause LAM, a multisystem disease characterized by cystic lung destruction, lymphatic infiltration, and abdominal tumors. Herein, we show that OPG stimulated proliferation of cells cultured from explanted LAM lungs, and selectively induced migration of LAM cells identified by the loss of heterozygosity for TSC2. Consistent with these observations, cells with TSC2 loss of heterozygosity expressed the OPG receptors, receptor activator of NF-κB ligand, syndecan-1, and syndecan-2. LAM lung nodules showed reactivities to antibodies to tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand, receptor activator of NF-κB ligand, syndecan-1, and syndecan-2. LAM lung nodules also produced OPG, as shown by expression of OPG mRNA and colocalization of reactivities to anti-OPG and anti-gp100 (HMB45) antibodies in LAM lung nodules. Serum OPG was significantly higher in LAM patients than in normal volunteers. Based on these data, it appears that OPG may have tumor-promoting roles in the pathogenesis of lymphangioleiomyomatosis, perhaps acting as both autocrine and paracrine factors.

Inhibition of Bcl-2 improves effect of LCL161, a SMAC mimetic, in hepatocellular carcinoma cells.

In this study, we investigated the effect of LCL161, a SMAC mimetic, in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). LCL161 showed differential effects on apoptosis in four HCC cell lines, and the endogenous level of Bcl-2 determined the sensitivity of HCC cells to LCL161. Cytotoxicity and apoptosis were observed in sensitive PLC5 and Hep3B cells that express lower levels of Bcl-2, but not in resistant Huh-7 and SK-Hep1 cells with higher Bcl-2 expression. Down regulation of Bcl-2 by small interference RNA overcame the resistance to LCL161 in Huh-7, and the apoptotic effect was rescued in Bcl-2-expressing Hep3B. To test the hypothesis that Bcl-2 determines the sensitivity of HCC cells to LCL161, we assayed the biological effect of SC-2001, a novel Bcl-2 inhibitor derived from obatoclax, in LCL161-resistant cell lines. Huh-7 cells co-treated with LCL161 and SC-2001 showed a significant dose-dependent apoptotic effect demonstrated by sub-G1 assay and cleavage of PARP. Furthermore, the combination index (CI) of LCL161 and SC-2001 showed a convincing synergism in resistant Huh-7. In addition, the combinational therapy showed significant growth inhibition in Huh-7-bearing xenograft tumors. Notably, down regulation of Bcl-2 was observed in a tumor sample treated with LCL161 and SC-2001. In conclusion, targeting Bcl-2 with SC-2001 overcomes drug resistance to LCL161 in HCC cells thus suggesting a new anti-IAP combinational therapy for HCC.

Genome-wide linkage and association scans for quantitative trait Loci of serum lactate dehydrogenase-the framingham heart study.

Serum lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) is used in diagnosing many diseases and is significantly determined by genetic factors. Three genes coding for LDH isoenzymes were mapped to chromosome 11q15 and 12p12. We used 330 Framingham Heart Study largest families for microsatellite linkage scan and 100K SNPs association scan to determine quantitative trait loci of LDH level. We estimated the heritability at 41%. Our genome-wide linkage analysis yielded several chromosomal regions, other than 11q and 12p, with LOD scores between 1 and 2.5. None of the 100K SNPs with a P-value <10(-4) in our genome-wide association study was close to the chromosomal regions where the LDH genes reside. Our study demonstrated a strong genetic effect on the variation of LDH levels. There may not be a single gene with a large effect, instead may be several genes with small effects in controlling the variation of serum LDH. Those genes may be located on chromosomal regions that differ from where the genes encoding LDH isoenzymes reside.

Serum bilirubin and genes controlling bilirubin concentrations as biomarkers for cardiovascular disease.

BACKGROUND: Serum bilirubin has been consistently shown to be inversely related to cardiovascular disease (CVD). Recent studies showed serum bilirubin to be associated with CVD-related factors such as diabetes, metabolic syndrome, and body mass index. Although the association of serum bilirubin with CVD has been found in both retrospective and prospective studies, less information is available on the role of genes that control bilirubin concentrations and their association with CVD. CONTENT: In this review, we provide detailed information on the identity of the major genes that control bilirubin concentrations and their association with serum bilirubin concentrations and CVD risk. We also update the results of the major studies that have been performed on the association between serum bilirubin, CVD, and CVD-related diseases such as diabetes or metabolic syndrome. Studies consistently indicate that bilirubin concentrations are inversely associated with different types of CVD and CVD-related diseases. A conditional linkage study indicates that UGT1A1 is the major gene controlling serum bilirubin concentrations, and this finding has been confirmed in recent genomewide association studies. Studies also indicate that individuals homozygous for UGT1A1*28 have a significantly lower risk of developing CVD than carriers of the wild-type alleles. SUMMARY: Serum bilirubin has a protective effect on CVD and CVD-related diseases, and UGT1A1 is the major gene controlling serum bilirubin concentrations. Pharmacologic, nonpharmacologic, or genetic interventions that increase serum bilirubin concentrations could provide more direct evidence on the role of bilirubin in CVD prevention.

Phenotypic characterization of disseminated cells with TSC2 loss of heterozygosity in patients with lymphangioleiomyomatosis.

RATIONALE: Lymphangioleiomyomatosis (LAM), occurring sporadically (S-LAM) or in patients with tuberous sclerosis complex (TSC), results from abnormal proliferation of LAM cells exhibiting mutations or loss of heterozygosity (LOH) of the TSC genes, TSC1 or TSC2. OBJECTIVES: To identify molecular markers useful for isolating LAM cells from body fluids and determine the frequency of TSC1 or TSC2 LOH. METHODS: Candidate cell surface markers were identified using gene microarray analysis of human TSC2⁻(/)⁻ cells. Cells from bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF), urine, chylous effusions, and blood were sorted based on reactivity with antibodies against these proteins (e.g., CD9, CD44v6) and analyzed for LOH using TSC1- and TSC2-related microsatellite markers and single nucleotide polymorphisms in the TSC2 gene. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: CD44v6(+)CD9(+) cells from BALF, urine, and chyle showed TSC2 LOH in 80%, 69%, and 50% of patient samples, respectively. LAM cells with TSC2 LOH were detected in more than 90% of blood samples. LAM cells from different body fluids of the same patients showed, in most cases, identical LOH patterns, that is, loss of alleles at the same microsatellite loci. In a few patients with S-LAM, LAM cells from different body fluids differed in LOH patterns. No patients with S-LAM with TSC1 LOH were identified, suggesting that TSC2 abnormalities are responsible for the vast majority of S-LAM cases and that TSC1-disease may be subclinical. CONCLUSIONS: Our data support a common genetic origin of LAM cells in most patients with S-LAM, consistent with a metastatic model. In some cases, however, there was evidence for genetic heterogeneity between LAM cells in different sites or within a site.

Serum vascular endothelial growth factor-D levels in patients with lymphangioleiomyomatosis reflect lymphatic involvement.

BACKGROUND: Lymphangioleiomyomatosis (LAM) is a rare multisystem disorder affecting primarily women of child-bearing age, and characterized by cystic lung destruction, tumors of the kidney (angiomyolipomas [AMLs]), and involvement of the axial lymphatics (lymphangioleiomyomas). Patients with LAM experience loss of pulmonary function attributed to the proliferation of abnormal-appearing smooth muscle-like cells (LAM cells). It is possible to group the LAM population by the presence or absence of extrapulmonary involvement (eg, AMLs, lymphangioleiomyomas, chylous effusions). Serum vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)-D, a lymphangiogenic factor, is higher in LAM patients than in healthy volunteers and has been proposed as a tool in the differential diagnosis of cystic lung disease. We assessed serum VEGF-D concentrations in relationship to clinical phenotype in LAM patients. METHODS: Serum VEGF-D levels were quantified by enzyme immunosorbent assay for 111 patients with LAM and 40 healthy volunteers. VEGF-D levels in patients with pulmonary LAM, with or without extrapulmonary manifestations, were compared to those of healthy volunteers. RESULTS: Serum VEGF-D levels were greater in patients with LAM compared to those of healthy volunteers (p < 0.001). However, when patient samples were grouped based on the extent of lymphatic extrapulmonary involvement (eg, lymphangioleiomyomas and adenopathy), the statistical difference was maintained only for patients with LAM with lymphatic involvement (p < 0.001), not for those patients whose disease was restricted to the lung. Serum VEGF-D levels are a good biomarker for lymphatic involvement (area under the curve [AUC], 0.845; p < 0.0001), and a fair predictor for LAM disease (AUC, 0.751; p < 0.0001). Serum levels correlated to CT scan grade (p = 0.033). CONCLUSIONS: Serum VEGF-D concentration is a measure of lymphatic involvement in patients with LAM.

Genome-wide association meta-analysis for total serum bilirubin levels.

Variation in serum bilirubin is associated with altered cardiovascular disease risk and drug metabolism. We aimed to identify genetic contributors to variability in serum bilirubin levels by combining results from three genome-wide association studies (Framingham heart study, n = 3424; Rotterdam study, n = 3847; Age, Gene, Environment and Susceptibility-Reykjavik, n = 2193). Meta-analysis showed strong replication for a genetic influence on serum bilirubin levels of the UGT1A1 locus (P < 5 x 10(-324)) and a 12p12.2 locus. The peak signal in the 12p12.2 region was a non-synonymous SNP in SLCO1B1 (rs4149056, P = 6.7 x 10(-13)), which gives rise to a valine to alanine amino acid change leading to reduced activity for a hepatic transporter with known affinity for bilirubin. There were also suggestive associations with several other loci. The top variants in UGT1A1 and SLCO1B1 explain approximately 18.0 and approximately 1.0% of the variation in total serum bilirubin levels, respectively. In a conditional analysis adjusted for individual genotypes for the top UGT1A1 variant, the top SLCO1B1 variant remained highly significant (P = 7.3 x 10(-13)), but no other variants achieved genome-wide significance. In one of the largest genetic studies of bilirubin to date (n = 9464), we confirm the substantial genetic influence of UGT1A1 variants, consistent with past linkage and association studies, and additionally provide strong evidence of a role for allelic variation in SLCO1B1. Given the involvement of bilirubin in a number of physiological and disease processes, and the roles for UGT1A1 and SLCO1B1 in drug metabolism, these genetic findings have potential clinical importance. In analyses for association with gallbladder disease or gallstones, top bilirubin SNPs in UGT1A1 and SLCO1B1 were not associated.

Conditional linkage and genome-wide association studies identify UGT1A1 as a major gene for anti-atherogenic serum bilirubin levels--the Framingham Heart Study.

OBJECTIVE AND METHODS: Low bilirubin levels are significantly associated with cardiovascular diseases (CVD). In previous genome-wide linkage studies we identified a major locus on chromosome 2q harboring the candidate gene UDP-glucuronosyltransferase (UGT1A1). The activity of this enzyme is significantly influenced by a TA-repeat polymorphism in the promoter of the gene. In a prospective study individuals with genotype (TA)7/(TA)7 had significantly higher bilirubin levels and approximately one-third the risk of CVD as carriers of the wildtype (TA)6 allele. In the present study we performed a conditional linkage study to investigate whether this polymorphism explains the observed linkage peak and extended our analysis by a genome-wide association study on bilirubin levels in 1345 individuals. RESULTS: After adjustment for the bilirubin variance explained by this polymorphism, the LOD score on chromosome 2q dropped from 3.8 to 0.4, demonstrating that this polymorphism explains the previous linkage result. For the genome-wide association study, the closest marker to UGT1A1 was in the top ranking SNPs. The association became even stronger when we considered the TA-repeat polymorphism in the analysis (p=2.68 x 10(-53)). Five other SNPs in other regions reached genome-wide significance without obvious connection to bilirubin metabolism. CONCLUSIONS: Our studies suggest that UGT1A1 may be the major gene with strong effects on bilirubin levels and the TA-repeat polymorphism might be the key polymorphism within the gene controlling bilirubin levels. Since this polymorphism has a high frequency and a substantial impact on the development of CVD, the gene might be an important drug target.