Medulloblastoma group 3 and 4 tumors comprise a clinically and biologically significant expression continuum reflecting human cerebellar development.

Medulloblastoma is currently subclassified into distinct DNA methylation subgroups/subtypes with particular clinico-molecular features. Using RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) in large, well-annotated cohorts of medulloblastoma, we show that transcriptionally group 3 and group 4 medulloblastomas exist as intermediates on a bipolar continuum between archetypal group 3 and group 4 entities. Continuum position is prognostic, reflecting a propensity for specific DNA copy-number changes, and specific switches in isoform/enhancer usage and RNA editing. Examining single-cell RNA-seq (scRNA-seq) profiles, we show that intratumoral transcriptional heterogeneity along the continuum is limited in a subtype-dependent manner. By integrating with a human scRNA-seq reference atlas, we show that this continuum is mirrored by an equivalent continuum of transcriptional cell types in early fetal cerebellar development. We identify distinct developmental niches for all four major subgroups and link each to a common developmental antecedent. Our findings show a transcriptional continuum arising from oncogenic disruption of highly specific fetal cerebellar cell types, linked to almost every aspect of group 3/group 4 molecular biology and clinico-pathology.

Emergence and maintenance of actionable genetic drivers at medulloblastoma relapse.

BACKGROUND: Less than 5% of medulloblastoma (MB) patients survive following failure of contemporary radiation-based therapies. Understanding the molecular drivers of medulloblastoma relapse (rMB) will be essential to improve outcomes. Initial genome-wide investigations have suggested significant genetic divergence of the relapsed disease. METHODS: We undertook large-scale integrated characterization of the molecular features of rMB-molecular subgroup, novel subtypes, copy number variation (CNV), and driver gene mutation. 119 rMBs were assessed in comparison with their paired diagnostic samples (n = 107), alongside an independent reference cohort sampled at diagnosis (n = 282). rMB events were investigated for association with outcome post-relapse in clinically annotated patients (n = 54). RESULTS: Significant genetic evolution occurred over disease-course; 40% of putative rMB drivers emerged at relapse and differed significantly between molecular subgroups. Non-infant MBSHH displayed significantly more chromosomal CNVs at relapse (TP53 mutation-associated). Relapsed MBGroup4 demonstrated the greatest genetic divergence, enriched for targetable (eg, CDK amplifications) and novel (eg, USH2A mutations) events. Importantly, many hallmark features of MB were stable over time; novel subtypes (>90% of tumors) and established genetic drivers (eg, SHH/WNT/P53 mutations; 60% of rMB events) were maintained from diagnosis. Critically, acquired and maintained rMB events converged on targetable pathways which were significantly enriched at relapse (eg, DNA damage signaling) and specific events (eg, 3p loss) predicted survival post-relapse. CONCLUSIONS: rMB is characterised by the emergence of novel events and pathways, in concert with selective maintenance of established genetic drivers. Together, these define the actionable genetic landscape of rMB and provide a basis for improved clinical management and development of stratified therapeutics, across disease-course.

Advanced molecular pathology for rare tumours: A national feasibility study and model for centralised medulloblastoma diagnostics.

AIMS: Application of advanced molecular pathology in rare tumours is hindered by low sample numbers, access to specialised expertise/technologies and tissue/assay QC and rapid reporting requirements. We assessed the feasibility of co-ordinated real-time centralised pathology review (CPR), encompassing molecular diagnostics and contemporary genomics (RNA-seq/DNA methylation-array). METHODS: This nationwide trial in medulloblastoma (<80 UK diagnoses/year) introduced a national reference centre (NRC) and assessed its performance and reporting to World Health Organisation standards. Paired frozen/formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded tumour material were co-submitted from 135 patients (16 referral centres). RESULTS: Complete CPR diagnostics were successful for 88% (120/135). Inadequate sampling was the most common cause of failure; biomaterials were typically suitable for methylation-array (129/135, 94%), but frozen tissues commonly fell below RNA-seq QC requirements (53/135, 39%). Late reporting was most often due to delayed submission. CPR assigned or altered histological variant (vs local diagnosis) for 40/135 tumours (30%). Benchmarking/QC of specific biomarker assays impacted test results; fluorescent in-situ hybridisation most accurately identified high-risk MYC/MYCN amplification (20/135, 15%), while combined methods (CTNNB1/chr6 status, methylation-array subgrouping) best defined favourable-risk WNT tumours (14/135; 10%). Engagement of a specialist pathologist panel was essential for consensus assessment of histological variants and immunohistochemistry. Overall, CPR altered clinical risk-status for 29% of patients. CONCLUSION: National real-time CPR is feasible, delivering robust diagnostics to WHO criteria and assignment of clinical risk-status, significantly altering clinical management. Recommendations and experience from our study are applicable to advanced molecular diagnostics systems, both local and centralised, across rare tumour types, enabling their application in biomarker-driven routine diagnostics and clinical/research studies.

Time, pattern, and outcome of medulloblastoma relapse and their association with tumour biology at diagnosis and therapy: a multicentre cohort study.

BACKGROUND: Disease relapse occurs in around 30% of children with medulloblastoma, and is almost universally fatal. We aimed to establish whether the clinical and molecular characteristics of the disease at diagnosis are associated with the nature of relapse and subsequent disease course, and whether these associations could inform clinical management. METHODS: In this multicentre cohort study we comprehensively surveyed the clinical features of medulloblastoma relapse (time to relapse, pattern of relapse, time from relapse to death, and overall outcome) in centrally reviewed patients who relapsed following standard upfront therapies, from 16 UK Children's Cancer and Leukaemia Group institutions and four collaborating centres. We compared these relapse-associated features with clinical and molecular features at diagnosis, including established and recently described molecular features, prognostic factors, and treatment at diagnosis and relapse. FINDINGS: 247 patients (175 [71%] boys and 72 [29%] girls) with medulloblastoma relapse (median year of diagnosis 2000 [IQR 1995-2006]) were included in this study. 17 patients were later excluded from further analyses because they did not meet the age and treatment criteria for inclusion. Patients who received upfront craniospinal irradiation (irradiated group; 178 [72%] patients) had a more prolonged time to relapse compared with patients who did not receive upfront craniospinal irradiation (non-irradiated group; 52 [21%] patients; p<0·0001). In the non-irradiated group, craniospinal irradiation at relapse (hazard ratio [HR] 0·27, 95% CI 0·11-0·68) and desmoplastic/nodular histology (0·23, 0·07-0·77) were associated with prolonged time to death after relapse, MYC amplification was associated with a reduced overall survival (23·52, 4·85-114·05), and re-resection at relapse was associated with longer overall survival (0·17, 0·05-0·57). In the irradiated group, patients with MBGroup3 tumours relapsed significantly more quickly than did patients with MBGroup4 tumours (median 1·34 [0·99-1·89] years vs 2·04 [1·39-3·42 years; p=0·0043). Distant disease was prevalent in patients with MBGroup3 (23 [92%] of 25 patients) and MBGroup4 (56 [90%] of 62 patients) tumour relapses. Patients with distantly-relapsed MBGroup3 and MBGroup4 displayed both nodular and diffuse patterns of disease whereas isolated nodular relapses were rare in distantly-relapsed MBSHH (1 [8%] of 12 distantly-relapsed MBSHH were nodular alone compared with 26 [34%] of 77 distantly-relapsed MBGroup3 and MBGroup4). In MBGroup3 and MBGroup4, nodular disease was associated with a prolonged survival after relapse (HR 0·42, 0·21-0·81). Investigation of second-generation MBGroup3 and MBGroup4 molecular subtypes refined our understanding of heterogeneous relapse characteristics. Subtype VIII had prolonged time to relapse and subtype II had a rapid time from relapse to death. Subtypes II, III, and VIII developed a significantly higher incidence of distant disease at relapse whereas subtypes V and VII did not (equivalent rates to diagnosis). INTERPRETATION: This study suggests that the nature and outcome of medulloblastoma relapse are biology and therapy-dependent, providing translational opportunities for improved disease management through biology-directed disease surveillance, post-relapse prognostication, and risk-stratified selection of second-line treatment strategies. FUNDING: Cancer Research UK, Action Medical Research, The Tom Grahame Trust, The JGW Patterson Foundation, Star for Harris, The Institute of Child Health - Newcastle University - Institute of Child Health High-Risk Childhood Brain Tumour Network (co-funded by The Brain Tumour Charity, Great Ormond Street Children's Charity, and Children with Cancer UK).

Second-generation molecular subgrouping of medulloblastoma: an international meta-analysis of Group 3 and Group 4 subtypes.

In 2012, an international consensus paper reported that medulloblastoma comprises four molecular subgroups (WNT, SHH, Group 3, and Group 4), each associated with distinct genomic features and clinical behavior. Independently, multiple recent reports have defined further intra-subgroup heterogeneity in the form of biologically and clinically relevant subtypes. However, owing to differences in patient cohorts and analytical methods, estimates of subtype number and definition have been inconsistent, especially within Group 3 and Group 4. Herein, we aimed to reconcile the definition of Group 3/Group 4 MB subtypes through the analysis of a series of 1501 medulloblastomas with DNA-methylation profiling data, including 852 with matched transcriptome data. Using multiple complementary bioinformatic approaches, we compared the concordance of subtype calls between published cohorts and analytical methods, including assessments of class-definition confidence and reproducibility. While the lowest complexity solutions continued to support the original consensus subgroups of Group 3 and Group 4, our analysis most strongly supported a definition comprising eight robust Group 3/Group 4 subtypes (types I-VIII). Subtype II was consistently identified across all component studies, while all others were supported by multiple class-definition methods. Regardless of analytical technique, increasing cohort size did not further increase the number of identified Group 3/Group 4 subtypes. Summarizing the molecular and clinico-pathological features of these eight subtypes indicated enrichment of specific driver gene alterations and cytogenetic events amongst subtypes, and identified highly disparate survival outcomes, further supporting their biological and clinical relevance. Collectively, this study provides continued support for consensus Groups 3 and 4 while enabling robust derivation of, and categorical accounting for, the extensive intertumoral heterogeneity within Groups 3 and 4, revealed by recent high-resolution subclassification approaches. Furthermore, these findings provide a basis for application of emerging methods (e.g., proteomics/single-cell approaches) which may additionally inform medulloblastoma subclassification. Outputs from this study will help shape definition of the next generation of medulloblastoma clinical protocols and facilitate the application of enhanced molecularly guided risk stratification to improve outcomes and quality of life for patients and their families.

Novel molecular subgroups for clinical classification and outcome prediction in childhood medulloblastoma: a cohort study.

BACKGROUND: International consensus recognises four medulloblastoma molecular subgroups: WNT (MBWNT), SHH (MBSHH), group 3 (MBGrp3), and group 4 (MBGrp4), each defined by their characteristic genome-wide transcriptomic and DNA methylomic profiles. These subgroups have distinct clinicopathological and molecular features, and underpin current disease subclassification and initial subgroup-directed therapies that are underway in clinical trials. However, substantial biological heterogeneity and differences in survival are apparent within each subgroup, which remain to be resolved. We aimed to investigate whether additional molecular subgroups exist within childhood medulloblastoma and whether these could be used to improve disease subclassification and prognosis predictions. METHODS: In this retrospective cohort study, we assessed 428 primary medulloblastoma samples collected from UK Children's Cancer and Leukaemia Group (CCLG) treatment centres (UK), collaborating European institutions, and the UKCCSG-SIOP-PNET3 European clinical trial. An independent validation cohort (n=276) of archival tumour samples was also analysed. We analysed samples from patients with childhood medulloblastoma who were aged 0-16 years at diagnosis, and had central review of pathology and comprehensive clinical data. We did comprehensive molecular profiling, including DNA methylation microarray analysis, and did unsupervised class discovery of test and validation cohorts to identify consensus primary molecular subgroups and characterise their clinical and biological significance. We modelled survival of patients aged 3-16 years in patients (n=215) who had craniospinal irradiation and had been treated with a curative intent. FINDINGS: Seven robust and reproducible primary molecular subgroups of childhood medulloblastoma were identified. MBWNT remained unchanged and each remaining consensus subgroup was split in two. MBSHH was split into age-dependent subgroups corresponding to infant (<4·3 years; MBSHH-Infant; n=65) and childhood patients (≥4·3 years; MBSHH-Child; n=38). MBGrp3 and MBGrp4 were each split into high-risk (MBGrp3-HR [n=65] and MBGrp4-HR [n=85]) and low-risk (MBGrp3-LR [n=50] and MBGrp4-LR [n=73]) subgroups. These biological subgroups were validated in the independent cohort. We identified features of the seven subgroups that were predictive of outcome. Cross-validated subgroup-dependent survival models, incorporating these novel subgroups along with secondary clinicopathological and molecular features and established disease risk-factors, outperformed existing disease risk-stratification schemes. These subgroup-dependent models stratified patients into four clinical risk groups for 5-year progression-free survival: favourable risk (54 [25%] of 215 patients; 91% survival [95% CI 82-100]); standard risk (50 [23%] patients; 81% survival [70-94]); high-risk (82 [38%] patients; 42% survival [31-56]); and very high-risk (29 [13%] patients; 28% survival [14-56]). INTERPRETATION: The discovery of seven novel, clinically significant subgroups improves disease risk-stratification and could inform treatment decisions. These data provide a new foundation for future research and clinical investigations. FUNDING: Cancer Research UK, The Tom Grahame Trust, Star for Harris, Action Medical Research, SPARKS, The JGW Patterson Foundation, The INSTINCT network (co-funded by The Brain Tumour Charity, Great Ormond Street Children's Charity, and Children with Cancer UK).

Development of a targeted sequencing approach to identify prognostic, predictive and diagnostic markers in paediatric solid tumours.

The implementation of personalised medicine in childhood cancers has been limited by a lack of clinically validated multi-target sequencing approaches specific for paediatric solid tumours. In order to support innovative clinical trials in high-risk patients with unmet need, we have developed a clinically relevant targeted sequencing panel spanning 311 kb and comprising 78 genes involved in childhood cancers. A total of 132 samples were used for the validation of the panel, including Horizon Discovery cell blends (n=4), cell lines (n=15), formalin-fixed paraffin embedded (FFPE, n=83) and fresh frozen tissue (FF, n=30) patient samples. Cell blends containing known single nucleotide variants (SNVs, n=528) and small insertion-deletions (indels n=108) were used to define panel sensitivities of ≥98% for SNVs and ≥83% for indels [95% CI] and panel specificity of ≥98% [95% CI] for SNVs. FFPE samples performed comparably to FF samples (n=15 paired). Of 95 well-characterised genetic abnormalities in 33 clinical specimens and 13 cell lines (including SNVs, indels, amplifications, rearrangements and chromosome losses), 94 (98.9%) were detected by our approach. We have validated a robust and practical methodology to guide clinical management of children with solid tumours based on their molecular profiles. Our work demonstrates the value of targeted gene sequencing in the development of precision medicine strategies in paediatric oncology.

Combined MYC and P53 defects emerge at medulloblastoma relapse and define rapidly progressive, therapeutically targetable disease.

We undertook a comprehensive clinical and biological investigation of serial medulloblastoma biopsies obtained at diagnosis and relapse. Combined MYC family amplifications and P53 pathway defects commonly emerged at relapse, and all patients in this group died of rapidly progressive disease postrelapse. To study this interaction, we investigated a transgenic model of MYCN-driven medulloblastoma and found spontaneous development of Trp53 inactivating mutations. Abrogation of p53 function in this model produced aggressive tumors that mimicked characteristics of relapsed human tumors with combined P53-MYC dysfunction. Restoration of p53 activity and genetic and therapeutic suppression of MYCN all reduced tumor growth and prolonged survival. Our findings identify P53-MYC interactions at medulloblastoma relapse as biomarkers of clinically aggressive disease that may be targeted therapeutically.

Cytogenetic prognostication within medulloblastoma subgroups.

PURPOSE: Medulloblastoma comprises four distinct molecular subgroups: WNT, SHH, Group 3, and Group 4. Current medulloblastoma protocols stratify patients based on clinical features: patient age, metastatic stage, extent of resection, and histologic variant. Stark prognostic and genetic differences among the four subgroups suggest that subgroup-specific molecular biomarkers could improve patient prognostication. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Molecular biomarkers were identified from a discovery set of 673 medulloblastomas from 43 cities around the world. Combined risk stratification models were designed based on clinical and cytogenetic biomarkers identified by multivariable Cox proportional hazards analyses. Identified biomarkers were tested using fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) on a nonoverlapping medulloblastoma tissue microarray (n = 453), with subsequent validation of the risk stratification models. RESULTS: Subgroup information improves the predictive accuracy of a multivariable survival model compared with clinical biomarkers alone. Most previously published cytogenetic biomarkers are only prognostic within a single medulloblastoma subgroup. Profiling six FISH biomarkers (GLI2, MYC, chromosome 11 [chr11], chr14, 17p, and 17q) on formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded tissues, we can reliably and reproducibly identify very low-risk and very high-risk patients within SHH, Group 3, and Group 4 medulloblastomas. CONCLUSION: Combining subgroup and cytogenetic biomarkers with established clinical biomarkers substantially improves patient prognostication, even in the context of heterogeneous clinical therapies. The prognostic significance of most molecular biomarkers is restricted to a specific subgroup. We have identified a small panel of cytogenetic biomarkers that reliably identifies very high-risk and very low-risk groups of patients, making it an excellent tool for selecting patients for therapy intensification and therapy de-escalation in future clinical trials.

DNA methylation profiling of medulloblastoma allows robust subclassification and improved outcome prediction using formalin-fixed biopsies.

Molecular subclassification is rapidly informing the clinical management of medulloblastoma. However, the disease remains associated with poor outcomes and therapy-associated late effects, and the majority of patients are not characterized by a validated prognostic biomarker. Here, we investigated the potential of epigenetic DNA methylation for disease subclassification, particularly in formalin-fixed biopsies, and to identify biomarkers for improved therapeutic individualization. Tumor DNA methylation profiles were assessed, alongside molecular and clinical disease features, in 230 patients primarily from the SIOP-UKCCSG PNET3 clinical trial. We demonstrate by cross-validation in frozen training and formalin-fixed test sets that medulloblastoma comprises four robust DNA methylation subgroups (termed WNT, SHH, G3 and G4), highly related to their transcriptomic counterparts, and which display distinct molecular, clinical and pathological disease characteristics. WNT patients displayed an expected favorable prognosis, while outcomes for SHH, G3 and G4 were equivalent in our cohort. MXI1 and IL8 methylation were identified as novel independent high-risk biomarkers in cross-validated survival models of non-WNT patients, and were validated using non-array methods. Incorporation of MXI1 and IL8 into current survival models significantly improved the assignment of disease risk; 46 % of patients could be classified as 'favorable risk' (>90 % survival) compared to 13 % using current models, while the high-risk group was reduced from 30 to 16 %. DNA methylation profiling enables the robust subclassification of four disease subgroups in frozen and routinely collected/archival formalin-fixed biopsy material, and the incorporation of DNA methylation biomarkers can significantly improve disease-risk stratification. These findings have important implications for future risk-adapted clinical disease management.

RASSF1A and the BH3-only mimetic ABT-737 promote apoptosis in pediatric medulloblastoma cell lines.

The RASSF1A tumor suppressor is potentially the most important candidate gene identified in medulloblastoma to date, being epigenetically silenced in >79% of primary tumors. However, its functional role has not been previously addressed in this tumor type. Here, we demonstrate that expression of RASSF1A promotes the induction of cell death after activation of both the extrinsic and intrinsic apoptotic pathways in medulloblastoma cells. Treatment of UW228-3 cells stably expressing RASSF1A with an anti-CD95 antibody to induce extrinsic apoptosis and etoposide or cisplatin to activate intrinsic apoptosis augmented tumor cell killing in a caspase-dependent manner. This led to increased activation of the pro-apoptotic BCL-2 family member BAX. On the basis of this knowledge, we demonstrate how the loss of RASSF1A function in medulloblastoma cells might be overcome using the novel BH3-only mimetic ABT-737 in combination with chemotherapeutic agents to target the BCL-2 anti-apoptotic members. We show that ABT-737 increased susceptibility to apoptosis induced by DNA damage regardless of RASSF1A expression status through increased activation of BAX. Our findings identify the RASSF1A tumor suppressor as a promoter of apoptotic signaling pathways. Investigation of its mechanism of action has revealed that these pathways can still be promoted in its absence and how these potentially represent novel therapeutic targets for medulloblastoma.

Rapid diagnosis of medulloblastoma molecular subgroups.

PURPOSE: Microarray studies indicate medulloblastoma comprises distinct molecular disease subgroups, which offer potential for improved clinical management. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: Minimal mRNA expression signatures diagnostic for the Wnt/Wingless (WNT) and Sonic Hedgehog (SHH) subgroups were developed, validated, and used to assign subgroup affiliation in 173 tumors from four independent cohorts, alongside a systematic investigation of subgroup clinical and molecular characteristics. RESULTS: WNT tumors [12% (21/173)] were diagnosed >5 years of age (peak, 10 years), displayed classic histology, CTNNB1 mutation (19/20), and associated chromosome 6 loss, and have previously been associated with favorable prognosis. SHH cases [24% (42/173)] predominated in infants (<3 years) and showed an age-dependent relationship to desmoplastic/nodular pathology; all infant desmoplastic/nodular cases (previously associated with a good outcome) were SHH-positive, but these relationships broke down in noninfants. PTCH1 mutations were common [34% (11/32)], but PTCH1 exon1c hypermethylation, chromosome 9q and REN (KCTD11) genetic loss were not SHH associated, and SMO or SUFU mutation, PTCH1 exon1a or SUFU hypermethylation did not play a role, indicating novel activating mechanisms in the majority of SHH cases. SHH tumors were associated with an absence of COL1A2 methylation. WNT/SHH-independent medulloblastomas [64% (110/173)] showed all histologies, peaked at 3 and 6 years, and were exclusively associated with chromosome 17p loss. CONCLUSIONS: Medulloblastoma subgroups are characterized by distinct genomic, epigenomic and clinicopathologic features, and clinical outcomes. Validated array-independent gene expression assays for the rapid assessment of subgroup affiliation in small biopsies provide a basis for their routine clinical application, in strategies including molecular disease-risk stratification and delivery of targeted therapeutics.

Subtypes of medulloblastoma have distinct developmental origins.

Medulloblastoma encompasses a collection of clinically and molecularly diverse tumour subtypes that together comprise the most common malignant childhood brain tumour. These tumours are thought to arise within the cerebellum, with approximately 25% originating from granule neuron precursor cells (GNPCs) after aberrant activation of the Sonic Hedgehog pathway (hereafter, SHH subtype). The pathological processes that drive heterogeneity among the other medulloblastoma subtypes are not known, hindering the development of much needed new therapies. Here we provide evidence that a discrete subtype of medulloblastoma that contains activating mutations in the WNT pathway effector CTNNB1 (hereafter, WNT subtype) arises outside the cerebellum from cells of the dorsal brainstem. We found that genes marking human WNT-subtype medulloblastomas are more frequently expressed in the lower rhombic lip (LRL) and embryonic dorsal brainstem than in the upper rhombic lip (URL) and developing cerebellum. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and intra-operative reports showed that human WNT-subtype tumours infiltrate the dorsal brainstem, whereas SHH-subtype tumours are located within the cerebellar hemispheres. Activating mutations in Ctnnb1 had little impact on progenitor cell populations in the cerebellum, but caused the abnormal accumulation of cells on the embryonic dorsal brainstem which included aberrantly proliferating Zic1(+) precursor cells. These lesions persisted in all mutant adult mice; moreover, in 15% of cases in which Tp53 was concurrently deleted, they progressed to form medulloblastomas that recapitulated the anatomy and gene expression profiles of human WNT-subtype medulloblastoma. We provide the first evidence, to our knowledge, that subtypes of medulloblastoma have distinct cellular origins. Our data provide an explanation for the marked molecular and clinical differences between SHH- and WNT-subtype medulloblastomas and have profound implications for future research and treatment of this important childhood cancer.

Global analysis of the medulloblastoma epigenome identifies disease-subgroup-specific inactivation of COL1A2.

Candidate gene investigations have indicated a significant role for epigenetic events in the pathogenesis of medulloblastoma, the most common malignant brain tumor of childhood. To assess the medulloblastoma epigenome more comprehensively, we undertook a genomewide investigation to identify genes that display evidence of methylation-dependent regulation. Expression microarray analysis of medulloblastoma cell lines following treatment with a DNA methyltransferase inhibitor revealed deregulation of multiple transcripts (3%-6% of probes per cell line). Eighteen independent genes demonstrated >3-fold reactivation in all cell lines tested. Bisulfite sequence analysis revealed dense CpG island methylation associated with transcriptional silencing for 12 of these genes. Extension of this analysis to primary tumors and the normal cerebellum revealed three major classes of epigenetically regulated genes: (1) normally methylated genes (DAZL, ZNF157, ASN) whose methylation reflects somatic patterns observed in the cerebellum, (2) X-linked genes (MSN, POU3F4, HTR2C) that show disruption of their sex-specific methylation patterns in tumors, and (3) tumor-specific methylated genes (COL1A2, S100A10, S100A6, HTATIP2, CDH1, LXN) that display enhanced methylation levels in tumors compared with the cerebellum. Detailed analysis of COL1A2 supports a key role in medulloblastoma tumorigenesis; dense biallelic methylation associated with transcriptional silencing was observed in 46 of 60 cases (77%). Moreover, COL1A2 status distinguished infant medulloblastomas of the desmoplastic histopathological subtype, indicating that distinct molecular pathogenesis may underlie these tumors and their more favorable prognosis. These data reveal a more diverse and expansive medulloblastoma epi genome than previously understood and provide strong evidence that the methylation status of specific genes may contribute to the biological subclassification of medulloblastoma.

Wnt/Wingless pathway activation and chromosome 6 loss characterize a distinct molecular sub-group of medulloblastomas associated with a favorable prognosis.

The accurate assessment of disease risk remains a major goal in children with medulloblastoma. Activation of the canonical Wnt/Wingless (Wnt/Wg) signalling pathway occurs in up to 25% of cases and is associated with a favorable disease outcome. To explore the molecular pathogenesis of Wnt/Wg-active medulloblastomas, and to investigate any genetic basis for their observed clinical behavior, we assessed a series of primary medulloblastomas for evidence of Wnt/Wg pathway activation, alongside a genome-wide analysis of associated copy-number aberrations. Cases displaying evidence of Wnt/Wg activation (CTNNB1 mutation and/or beta-catenin nuclear stabilisation) were exclusively associated with a distinct genomic signature involving loss of an entire copy of chromosome 6 but few other aberrations (p < 0.001). In contrast, Wnt/Wg-negative tumors coclustered into an unrelated sub-group characterised by multiple established genomic defects common in medulloblastoma (losses of chromosomes 17p, 8, 10 and 16; gains of chromosomes 7 and 17q). Further investigation of specific genetic defects in a larger independent cohort demonstrated that loss of chromosome 6 was exclusively observed in Wnt/Wg-active tumors, but not in Wnt/Wg-negative cases (8/13 vs. 0/19; p = 0.0001), while pathway activation was independent of chromosome 17 aberrations, the most common chromosomal alterations detected in medulloblastoma (p = 0.005). Wnt/Wg-active tumors could not be distinguished on the basis of clinical or pathological disease features. Our data indicate that Wnt/Wg-active tumors represent an independent molecular sub-group of medulloblastomas characterised by a distinct pattern of genomic aberrations. These findings provide a strong biological basis to support (1) the idiosyncratic clinical behavior of Wnt/Wg-active medulloblastomas, and (2) the development of beta-catenin status as an independent marker for therapeutic stratification in this disease.

APC and CTNNB1 mutations are rare in sporadic ependymomas.

The ependymoma is the second most common malignant brain tumor of childhood; however, its molecular basis is poorly understood. The formation of multiple ependymomas has been reported as an occasional feature of Turcot syndrome type 2 (TS2), a familial cancer syndrome caused by inherited mutations of the APC tumor suppressor gene, and characterised by the concurrence of a primary CNS tumor (predominantly medulloblastoma) and multiple colorectal adenomas. APC is a critical component of the Wnt/Wingless signaling pathway, which is disrupted in sporadic cancers (e.g., colorectal adenomas, hepatocellular carcinomas, and medulloblastomas) by somatic mutations affecting multiple genes encoding alternative pathway components, including APC and CTNNB1 (encoding beta-catenin). To investigate any role for genetic disruption of the Wnt/Wingless pathway in sporadic ependymomas, we performed mutation analysis of APC and CTNNB1 in 77 primary tumors. Two synonymous APC polymorphisms (PRO1442PRO; THR1493THR) were identified, which were detected at equivalent rates in ependymomas and control nonneoplastic DNA samples (n =50); however, no further APC or CTNNB1 sequence variations were found. In summary, although inherited APC mutations may be associated with ependymoma development in certain TS2 cases, these data indicate that somatic mutations affecting APC and CTNNB1 do not play a major role in the pathogenesis of sporadic ependymomas.

Epigenetic inactivation of MCJ (DNAJD1) in malignant paediatric brain tumours.

MCJ (DNAJD1) is a recently discovered member of the DNAJ protein family whose expression is controlled epigenetically by methylation of a CpG island located within the 5' transcribed region of its gene. Methylation-dependent transcriptional silencing of MCJ has been observed in ovarian cancers and associated with increased resistance to chemotherapeutic agents; however, its role in other cancer types has not been widely investigated. We examined the status of MCJ in intracranial primitive neuroectodermal tumours [PNETs, comprising cerebellar PNETs (medulloblastomas) and supratentorial PNETs (stPNETs)] and ependymomas, together representing the most common malignant brain tumours of childhood. Evidence of MCJ hypermethylation was found in all 3 tumour types [medulloblastomas, 3/9 (33%) cell lines, 2/28 (7%) primary tumours; stPNETs, 2/2 (100%) cell lines, 3/10 (30%) primary tumours; and ependymomas, 2/20 (10%) primary tumours] but not in nonneoplastic brain tissues (n = 11), indicating that MCJ methylation is a tumour-specific event. In methylated cases, the distribution of methylated CpG sites across the CpG island could be broadly divided into 2 patterns: (i) extensive methylation of the majority of CpG sites across the island or (ii) limited methylation of individual CpG sites concentrated towards the 5' end of the island. Extensive methylation patterns were associated with the methylation-dependent transcriptional silencing of MCJ in medulloblastoma and stPNET cell lines. Further investigations of the mechanism of MCJ inactivation revealed that its loss could occur either through biallelic epigenetic methylation or by methylation in association with genetic loss of its second allele. These data indicate that epigenetic inactivation of MCJ may play a role in the development of a range of paediatric brain tumour types, and its role in disease pathogenesis and chemotherapeutic resistance should now be investigated further.