Assessing microhabitat, landscape features and intraguild relationships in the occupancy of the enigmatic and threatened Andean tiger cat (Leopardus tigrinus pardinoides) in the cloud forests of northwestern Colombia.

Mesocarnivores play a key role in ecosystem dynamics through the regulation of prey populations and are sensitive to environmental changes; thus, they are often considered good model organisms for conservation planning. However, data regarding the factors that influence the habitat use of threatened small wild felids such as the Andean tiger cat (Leopardus tigrinus pardinoides) are scarce. We conducted a two-year survey with 58 camera trap stations to evaluate the determinants of Andean tiger cat habitat use in three protected areas in the Middle Cauca, Colombia. We developed site occupancy models and found that Andean tiger cat habitat use increased with leaf litter depth at intermediate elevations and far from human settlements. Through conditional cooccurrence models, we found that Andean tiger cat habitat use was invariant to the presence of prey or potential intraguild competitors and killers/predators, but its detectability increased when they were present and detected. This suggests that Andean tiger cats may be more likely to be detected in sites with high prey availability. We found that Andean tiger cats preferred sites with deep leaf litter, which is a particular feature of cloud forests that provides suitable conditions for ambush hunting and hiding from intraguild enemies. Our results showed that Andean tiger cats avoided human settlements, which may minimize potential mortality risks in those areas. Moreover, the restricted use of middle elevations by Andean tiger cats suggested that they could be used as a sentinel species to track the effects of climate change since their suitable habitat is likely to be projected upward in elevation. Future conservation actions must be focused on identifying and mitigating human-related threats close to the Andean tiger cat habitat while preserving microhabitat conditions and the existing networks of protected areas.

Prevalence and Molecular Characterisation of Blastocystis sp. Infecting Free-Ranging Primates in Colombia.

Infection with Blastocystis sp. has been reported in free-living and captive non-human primates (NHPs); however, surveys on Blastocystis sp. from north-western South America are scarce. This study aimed to identify Blastocystis sp. in free-ranging NHPs living in Colombia. A total of 212 faecal samples were collected from Ateles hybridus, Cebus versicolor, Alouatta seniculus, Aotus griseimembra, Sapajus apella, and Saimiri cassiquiarensis. Smears and flotation were used for morphological identification. For samples microscopically classified as positive for Blastocystis sp., we used conventional PCR to amplify and sequence two regions of the SSU rRNA gene and used Maximum Likelihood methods and Median Joining Network analyses for phylogenetic analyses. Via microscopy, 64 samples were Blastocystis sp. positive. Through molecular analyses, 18 sequences of Blastocystis sp. subtype 8 (ST8) were obtained. Strain and allele assignment together with a comparative phylogenetic approach confirmed that the sequences were ST8. Alleles 21, 156, and 157 were detected. Median Joining network analyses showed one highly frequent haplotype shared by specimens from Colombia and Peru and close relationships between haplotypes circulating in NHPs from Colombia, Ecuador, Brazil, and Mexico. This survey could support the elaboration of a more accurate epidemiological picture of the Blastocystis sp. infecting NHPs.

Cuterebra baeri Infecting Grey-Legged Night Monkeys (Aotus griseimembra) and Red Howler Monkeys (Alouatta seniculus) in Colombia.

Myiases are parasitic infections caused by the larval stages of some fly species. In American nonhuman primates (NHP), three bot fly species causing cutaneous myiasis have been reported: Cuterebra baeri, Cochliomyia hominivorax, and Dermatobia hominis. Studies on myiasis in NHP are scarce and mainly based on morphologic identification of larvae, while molecular approaches have been barely used. This study aimed to molecularly identify bot flies parasitizing two NHP species living sympatrically in central Colombia. Bot fly larvae were collected from two grey-legged night monkeys (Aotus griseimembra) and from a howler monkey (Alouatta seniculus). Larvae were measured and photographed for morphologic evaluation; subsequent molecular characterizations of a partial region of the cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 mitochondrial gene were performed. Sequence analysis allowed the identification of all specimens as Cuterebra baeri, enabling confirmation of this species parasitizing Alouatta seniculus and Aotus griseimembra in Colombia.

Parasites of Free-Ranging and Captive American Primates: A Systematic Review.

The diversity, spread, and evolution of parasites in non-human primates (NHPs) is a relevant issue for human public health as well as for NHPs conservation. Although previous reviews have recorded information on parasites in NHPs (Platyrrhines) in the Americas, the increasing number of recent studies has made these inventories far from complete. Here, we summarize information about parasites recently reported in Platyrrhines, attempting to build on earlier reviews and identify information gaps. A systematic literature search was conducted in PubMed, ISI Web of Science, and Latin American and Caribbean Health Sciences Literature (LILACS), and following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. Ninety-three studies were included after the screening process. Records for 20 genera of NHPs, including 90 species were found. Most of the studies were conducted on captive individuals (54.1%), and morphological approaches were the most used for parasite identification. The most commonly collected biological samples were blood and stool, and Protozoa was the most frequent parasite group found. There is still scarce (if any) information on the parasites associated to several Platyrrhine species, especially for free-ranging populations. The use of molecular identification methods can provide important contributions to the field of NHPs parasitology in the near future. Finally, the identification of parasites in NHPs populations will continue to provide relevant information in the context of pervasive habitat loss and fragmentation that should influence both human public health and wildlife conservation strategies.

River connectivity and climate behind the long-term evolution of tropical American floodplain lakes.

This study presents the long-term evolution of two floodplains lakes (San Juana and Barbacoas) of the Magdalena River in Colombia with varying degree of connectivity to the River and with different responses to climate events (i.e., extreme floods and droughts). Historical limnological changes were identified through a multiproxy-based reconstruction including diatoms, sedimentation, and sediment geochemistry, while historical climatic changes were derived from the application of the Standardised Precipitation-Evapotranspiration Index. The main gradients in climatic and limnological change were assessed via multivariate analysis and generalized additive models. The reconstruction of the more isolated San Juana Lake spanned the last c. 500 years. Between c. 1,620 and 1,750 CE, riverine-flooded conditions prevailed as indicated by high detrital input, reductive conditions, and dominance of planktonic diatoms. Since the early 1800s, the riverine meander became disconnected, conveying into a marsh-like environment rich in aerophil diatoms and organic matter. The current lake was then formed around the mid-1960s with a diverse lake diatom flora including benthic and planktonic diatoms, and more oxygenated waters under a gradual increase in sedimentation and nutrients. The reconstruction for Barbacoas Lake, a waterbody directly connected to the Magdalena River, spanned the last 60 years and showed alternating riverine-wetland-lake conditions in response to varying ENSO conditions. Wet periods were dominated by planktonic and benthic diatoms, while aerophil diatom species prevailed during dry periods; during the two intense ENSO periods of 1987 and 1992, the lake almost desiccated and sedimentation rates spiked. A gradual increase in sedimentation rates post-2000 suggests that other factors rather than climate are also influencing sediment deposition in the lake. We propose that hydrological connectivity to the Magdalena River is a main factor controlling lake long-term responses to human pressures, where highly connected lakes respond more acutely to ENSO events while isolated lakes are more sensitive to local land-use changes.

Color vision and niche partitioning in a diverse neotropical primate community in lowland Amazonian Ecuador.

A recent focus in community ecology has been on how within-species variability shapes interspecific niche partitioning. Primate color vision offers a rich system in which to explore this issue. Most neotropical primates exhibit intraspecific variation in color vision due to allelic variation at the middle-to-long-wavelength opsin gene on the X chromosome. Studies of opsin polymorphisms have typically sampled primates from different sites, limiting the ability to relate this genetic diversity to niche partitioning. We surveyed genetic variation in color vision of five primate species, belonging to all three families of the primate infraorder Platyrrhini, found in the Yasuní Biosphere Reserve in Ecuador. The frugivorous spider monkeys and woolly monkeys (Ateles belzebuth and Lagothrix lagotricha poeppigii, family Atelidae) each had two opsin alleles, and more than 75% of individuals carried the longest-wavelength (553-556 nm) allele. Among the other species, Saimiri sciureus macrodon (family Cebidae) and Pithecia aequatorialis (family Pitheciidae) had three alleles, while Plecturocebus discolor (family Pitheciidae) had four alleles-the largest number yet identified in a wild population of titi monkeys. For all three non-atelid species, the middle-wavelength (545 nm) allele was the most common. Overall, we identified genetic evidence of fourteen different visual phenotypes-seven types of dichromats and seven trichromats-among the five sympatric taxa. The differences we found suggest that interspecific competition among primates may influence intraspecific frequencies of opsin alleles. The diversity we describe invites detailed study of foraging behavior of different vision phenotypes to learn how they may contribute to niche partitioning.

Lunar periodic modulation of the circadian activity rhythm in a wild North Colombian night monkey (Aotus griseimembra).

South American night monkeys (genus Aotus) are the only nocturnal simian primates. Early activity recordings in North Colombian A. griseimembra monkeys kept under semi-natural conditions and extensive chronobiological studies carried out in laboratory settings revealed a strictly nocturnal behavior and strong activity enhancing (disinhibiting) effects of moonlight or corresponding luminosities during the dark time. To check whether the results from captive individuals correspond to the behavior of wild monkeys, we carried out long-term activity recordings of a wild female A. griseimembra in a tropical rainforest near San Juan de Carare, Northern Colombia. Our data from about 150 days of continuous activity records with an "Actiwatch Mini" (CamNtech, UK) accelerometer-data logger device, confirmed: (1) strictly nocturnal behavior, (2) a pronounced bimodal activity pattern with prominent peaks during dusk and dawn, and (3) a lunar periodic modulation (masking) of the night monkey's circadian activity rhythm due to distinct activity inhibiting effects of the absence of moonlight throughout the night. The results from this wild-living tropical night monkey are consistent with those from captive conspecifics studied decades earlier.

Activity budget, home range and diet of the Colombian night monkey (Aotus lemurinus) in peri-urban forest fragments.

Forest fragmentation and deforestation are major threats to primates at a global scale. The survival of primates in forest fragments largely depends on their behavioral and dietary flexibility, as well as their ability to use a modified matrix in anthropogenic landscapes, hence the importance of determining these ecological parameters in habitats with strong anthropic interventions. This paper aims to describe the activity budget and diet of two groups of the Colombian night monkey (Aotus lemurinus) and to estimate their home range in two peri-urban forest fragments in the city of Manizales, Colombia. We combined scan sampling and handheld GPS fixes in order to determine the behavioral, dietary and spatial patterns of the study groups. Night monkeys spent most of their time resting and traveling and were mainly frugivorous relying on at least 26 plant species in their diet. The most consumed plants included Persea americana, Cecropia angustifolia, Musa x paradisiaca, Cecropia telenitida, and Croton cf. mutisianus. Two of these plants are cultivated species and can provide important resources for populations in small forest fragments. Home range sizes were estimated at 1.7 to 1.8 hectares, using a grid count method. Our results suggest the potential adaptability that these primates have when exposed to anthropogenic habitat disturbances and habitat degradation. Nonetheless, future studies should evaluate the influence of demographic factors and resource availability on the behavioral, dietary and spatial patterns of A. lemurinus in peri-urban forests, in order to further understand their ability to cope with the pervasive processes of habitat fragmentation in the northern Andes.

Oilbirds disperse large seeds at longer distance than extinct megafauna.

The extinction of megafauna in the Neotropics is thought to have reduced the potential of large seeds to be dispersed over long distances by endozoochory (ingestion by animals), but some seed dispersal systems have not been considered. We describe the role of oilbirds (Steatornis caripensis) as seed dispersers, in terms of seed width and dispersal distance (using GPS tracking devices), and we compare with data reported for other animals. Oilbirds dispersed seeds up to 29 mm wide, with a mean dispersal distance of 10.1 km (range 0-47.6 km). Some components of seed dispersal by oilbirds are outliers compared to that of other frugivores, such as the relationship between maximum seed width and body weight (however, few other extant specialized frugivores are also outliers). Estimates of mean dispersal distance by oilbirds are the largest reported, and we confirm that some living frugivores currently fulfil roles of seed dispersers and ecosystem services previously assumed to be only performed by extinct species.

New insights on the anatomy and ontogeny of the largest extinct freshwater turtles.

There are many questions regarding the largest freshwater turtle that ever existed, including how its morphology changed during its ontogeny and how a single ecosystem was able to support more than one group of giant turtles. Here, we report the first individual preserving an associated skull and shell for Stupendemys geographica (currently the largest known side-necked turtle) and a nearly complete skull of Caninemys tridentata found in Miocene rocks of the Tatacoa Desert in Colombia. These two specimens indicate that more than two large freshwater turtle species shared a single ecosystem during the middle Miocene in northern South America. We also show the changes in the shell and scutes that occurred along the ontogeny of S. geographica, including a flattening of the carapace, constriction of the vertebral scutes, and increase in the height and thickness of the nuchal upturn wall; some of these changes are also evident in extant representatives of Podocnemididae, and have implications for a better understanding of their phylogeny.

Reproductive seasonality in two sympatric primates (Ateles belzebuth and Lagothrix lagotricha poeppigii) from Amazonian Ecuador.

With their large body size and "slow" life histories, atelin primates are thought to follow a risk-averse breeding strategy, similar to capital breeders, in which they accumulate energy reserves in anticipation of future reproductive events such as gestation and lactation. However, given the paucity of longitudinal data from wild populations, few studies to date have been able to compare the timing of reproductive events (e.g., copulations, conceptions, and births) in relation to shifting resource availability over multiple years. We examined the reproductive patterns of two atelin species-white-bellied spider monkeys (Ateles belzebuth) and lowland woolly monkeys (Lagothrix lagotricha poeppigii)-in relation to habitat-wide estimates of fruit availability at the Tiputini Biodiversity Station (TBS) in Amazonian Ecuador. Our sample included 4 years of data on births (N = 36) and copulations (N = 170) for Lagothrix, 10 years of data on births (N = 35) and copulations (N = 74) for Ateles, and 7 years of data on ripe fruit availability. Reproductive events were distinctly seasonal. For both species, births were concentrated between May and September, a time period in which ripe fruit was relatively scarce, while inferred conceptions occurred between September and January, when ripe fruit availability was increasing and maintained at high-levels throughout the forest. Interannual variation in births was relatively stable, except for in 2016 when twice as many infants were born following a strong El Niño event that may have led to unusually high levels of fruit productivity during the 2015 breeding season. Although copulations were observed year-round, an overwhelming majority (>90% for Lagothrix and >80% for Ateles) took place between August and February when females were most likely to conceive. Collectively, these data follow the reproductive patterns observed in other atelin primates, and, as proposed by others, suggest that atelins may follow a risk-averse breeding strategy.

Correction to: Review of GPS collar deployments and performance on nonhuman primates.

In the original publication of the article, figure 1 was wrongly published as a duplication.

Review of GPS collar deployments and performance on nonhuman primates.

Over the past 20 years, GPS collars have emerged as powerful tools for the study of nonhuman primate (hereafter, "primate") movement ecology. As the size and cost of GPS collars have decreased and performance has improved, it is timely to review the use and success of GPS collar deployments on primates to date. Here we compile data on deployments and performance of GPS collars by brand and examine how these relate to characteristics of the primate species and field contexts in which they were deployed. The compiled results of 179 GPS collar deployments across 17 species by 16 research teams show these technologies can provide advantages, particularly in adding to the quality, quantity, and temporal span of data collection. However, aspects of this technology still require substantial improvement in order to make deployment on many primate species pragmatic economically. In particular, current limitations regarding battery lifespan relative to collar weight, the efficacy of remote drop-off mechanisms, and the ability to remotely retrieve data need to be addressed before the technology is likely to be widely adopted. Moreover, despite the increasing utility of GPS collars in the field, they remain substantially more expensive than VHF collars and tracking via handheld GPS units, and cost considerations of GPS collars may limit sample sizes and thereby the strength of inferences. Still, the overall high quality and quantity of data obtained, combined with the reduced need for on-the-ground tracking by field personnel, may help defray the high equipment cost. We argue that primatologists armed with the information in this review have much to gain from the recent, substantial improvements in GPS collar technology.

Biodiversity of protists and nematodes in the wild nonhuman primate gut.

Documenting the natural diversity of eukaryotic organisms in the nonhuman primate (NHP) gut is important for understanding the evolution of the mammalian gut microbiome, its role in digestion, health and disease, and the consequences of anthropogenic change on primate biology and conservation. Despite the ecological significance of gut-associated eukaryotes, little is known about the factors that influence their assembly and diversity in mammals. In this study, we used an 18S rRNA gene fragment metabarcoding approach to assess the eukaryotic assemblage of 62 individuals representing 16 NHP species. We find that cercopithecoids, and especially the cercopithecines, have substantially higher alpha diversity than other NHP groups. Gut-associated protists and nematodes are widespread among NHPs, consistent with their ancient association with NHP hosts. However, we do not find a consistent signal of phylosymbiosis or host-species specificity. Rather, gut eukaryotes are only weakly structured by primate phylogeny with minimal signal from diet, in contrast to previous reports of NHP gut bacteria. The results of this study indicate that gut-associated eukaryotes offer different information than gut-associated bacteria and add to our understanding of the structure of the gut microbiome.

Prevalence of Plasmodium parasites in non-human primates and mosquitoes in areas with different degrees of fragmentation in Colombia.

BACKGROUND: Parasites from the genus Plasmodium, the aetiological agent of malaria in humans, can also infect non-human primates (NHP), increasing the potential risk of zoonotic transmission with its associated global public health concerns. In Colombia, there are no recent studies on Plasmodium spp. infecting free-ranging NHP. Thus, this study aimed to determine the diversity of Plasmodium species circulating in fragmented forests in central Colombia, both in Anopheles mosquitoes and in the four sympatric NHP in the region (Ateles hybridus, Cebus versicolor, Alouatta seniculus and Aotus griseimembra), in order to evaluate the risk of infection to humans associated with the presence of sylvatic hosts and vectors infected with Plasmodium spp. METHODS: Overall, there were collected 166 fecal samples and 25 blood samples from NHP, and 442 individuals of Anopheles spp. DNA extraction, nested PCR using mitochondrial (cox3 gene) and ribosomal (18S rDNA) primers, electrophoresis and sequencing were conducted in order to identify Plasmodium spp. from the samples. RESULTS: Plasmodium falciparum was detected in two fecal samples of Alouatta seniculus, while Plasmodium vivax/simium infected Ateles hybridus, Cebus versicolor and Alouatta seniculus. Co-infections with P. vivax/simium and Plasmodium malariae/brasilianum were found in three individuals. The highest prevalence from blood samples was found for Plasmodium malariae/brasilianum in two Alouatta seniculus while Plasmodium vivax/simium was most prevalent in fecal samples, infecting four individuals of Alouatta seniculus. Seven Anopheles species were identified in the study site: Anopheles (Anopheles) punctimacula, Anopheles (An.) malefactor, Anopheles (Nyssorhynchus) oswaldoi, Anopheles (Nys.) triannulatus, Anopheles (An.) neomaculipalpus, Anopheles (Nys.) braziliensis and Anopheles (Nys.) nuneztovari. Infection with P. vivax/simium was found in An. nuneztovari, An. neomaculipalpus, and An. triannulatus. Furthermore, An. oswaldoi and An. triannulatus were found infected with P. malariae/brasilianum. The effect of fragmentation and distance to the nearest town measured in five forests with different degrees of fragmentation was not statistically significant on the prevalence of Plasmodium in NHP, but forest fragmentation did have an effect on the Minimum Infection Rate (MIR) in Anopheles mosquitoes. CONCLUSIONS: The presence of Plasmodium spp. in NHP and Anopheles spp. in fragmented forests in Colombia has important epidemiological implications in the human-NHP interface and the associated risk of malaria transmission.

Initiation of feeding by four sympatric Neotropical primates (Ateles belzebuth, Lagothrix lagotricha poeppigii, Plecturocebus (Callicebus) discolor, and Pithecia aequatorialis) in Amazonian Ecuador: Relationships to photic and ecological factors.

We examined photic and ecological factors related to initiation of feeding by four sympatric primates in the rain forest of Amazonian Ecuador. With rare exceptions, morning activities of all taxa began only after the onset of nautical twilight, which occurred 47-48 min before sunrise. The larger spider and woolly monkeys, Ateles belzebuth and Lagothrix lagotricha poeppigii, left their sleeping trees before sunrise about half the time, while the smaller sakis and titi monkeys, Pithecia aequatorialis and Plecturocebus (formerly Callicebus) discolor, did not emerge until sunrise or later. None of the four taxa routinely began feeding before sunrise. Pithecia began feeding a median 2.17 h after sunrise, at least 0.8 h later than the median feeding times of the other three taxa. The early movement of Ateles and Lagothrix, and late initiation of feeding by Pithecia are consistent with temporal niche partitioning. Among most New World primate species, all males and many females, have dichromatic color vision, with only two cone photopigments, while some females are trichromats with three cone photopigments. Current evidence indicates that the dichromats have a foraging advantage in dim light, which could facilitate utilization of twilight periods and contribute to temporal niche partitioning. However, in our study, dichromatic males did not differentially exploit the dim light of twilight, and times of first feeding bouts of female Ateles and Lagothrix were similar to those of males. First feeding bouts followed a seasonal pattern, occurring latest in May-August, when ripe fruit abundance and ambient temperature were both relatively low. The most frugivorous taxon, Ateles, exhibited the greatest seasonality, initiating feeding 1.4 h later in May-August than in January-April. This pattern may imply a strategy of conserving energy when ripe fruit is scarcer, but starting earlier to compete successfully when fruit is more abundant. Lower temperatures were associated with later feeding of Ateles (by 26 min / °C) and perhaps Pithecia, but not Lagothrix or Plecturocebus. The potential for modification of temporal activity patterns and temporal niche partitioning by relatively small changes in temperature should be considered when predicting the effects of climate change.

Evolutionary trends in host physiology outweigh dietary niche in structuring primate gut microbiomes.

Over the past decade several studies have reported that the gut microbiomes of mammals with similar dietary niches exhibit similar compositional and functional traits. However, these studies rely heavily on samples from captive individuals and often confound host phylogeny, gut morphology, and diet. To more explicitly test the influence of host dietary niche on the mammalian gut microbiome we use 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing and shotgun metagenomics to compare the gut microbiota of 18 species of wild non-human primates classified as either folivores or closely related non-folivores, evenly distributed throughout the primate order and representing a range of gut morphological specializations. While folivory results in some convergent microbial traits, collectively we show that the influence of host phylogeny on both gut microbial composition and function is much stronger than that of host dietary niche. This pattern does not result from differences in host geographic location or actual dietary intake at the time of sampling, but instead appears to result from differences in host physiology. These findings indicate that mammalian gut microbiome plasticity in response to dietary shifts over both the lifespan of an individual host and the evolutionary history of a given host species is constrained by host physiological evolution. Therefore, the gut microbiome cannot be considered separately from host physiology when describing host nutritional strategies and the emergence of host dietary niches.

Demography and life history of a group of white-bellied spider monkeys (Ateles belzebuth) in western Amazonia.

Species-specific demographic parameters and life history variables are important for understanding how individual primate taxa have adapted to evolutionary and ecological pressures and for conducting interspecific comparisons as well as for conducting population viability analyses and for managing captive populations. Here, we describe results from a 12+ year study of the demographic dynamics of a wild group of white-bellied spider monkeys (Ateles belzebuth belzebuth) living near the Tiputini Biodiversity Station in a largely pristine rainforest in western Amazonia. Across the study period, group size varied between 25 and 37 individuals, and there was a clearly female-biased sex ratio within all age classes. Females were the dispersing sex, as 19 females born into the group disappeared close to reaching adult body size and were presumed to have emigrated, while seven subadult or adult females joined the group during the study period. We estimated the age of dispersal for females at 5.9 ± SD 0.4 years (N = 13). Our study confirms that males are the philopatric sex, as all natal males have remained in the group and some have begun to reproduce, while no males have immigrated. Males began ranging independently from their mothers at ∼4.5 years of age and began copulating with adult females by the age of ∼5 years. Females had long inter-birth intervals (44.2 ± SD 7.8 months; range: 32-64 months, N = 21). Based on our data, female spider monkeys might have longer life spans than males, as only one out of six adult males but 9 out of 11 adult females present in the group in mid 2005 were still present in January 2018. The slow development and extended life histories of wild spider monkeys pose significant challenges for the ability of these primates to cope with habitat degradation and hunting throughout their geographical distribution.

The Effects of Captivity on the Mammalian Gut Microbiome.

Recent studies increasingly note the effect of captivity or the built environment on the microbiome of humans and other animals. As symbiotic microbes are essential to many aspects of biology (e.g., digestive and immune functions), it is important to understand how lifestyle differences can impact the microbiome, and, consequently, the health of hosts. Animals living in captivity experience a range of changes that may influence the gut bacteria, such as diet changes, treatments, and reduced contact with other individuals, species and variable environmental substrates that act as sources of bacterial diversity. Thus far, initial results from previous studies point to a pattern of decreased bacterial diversity in captive animals. However, these studies are relatively limited in the scope of species that have been examined. Here we present a dataset that includes paired wild and captive samples from mammalian taxa across six Orders to investigate generalizable patterns of the effects captivity on mammalian gut bacteria. In comparing the wild to the captive condition, our results indicate that alpha diversity of the gut bacteria remains consistent in some mammalian hosts (bovids, giraffes, anteaters, and aardvarks), declines in the captive condition in some hosts (canids, primates, and equids), and increases in the captive condition in one host taxon (rhinoceros). Differences in gut bacterial beta diversity between the captive and wild state were observed for most of the taxa surveyed, except the even-toed ungulates (bovids and giraffes). Additionally, beta diversity variation was also strongly influenced by host taxonomic group, diet type, and gut fermentation physiology. Bacterial taxa that demonstrated larger shifts in relative abundance between the captive and wild states included members of the Firmicutes and Bacteroidetes. Overall, the patterns that we observe will inform a range of disciplines from veterinary practice to captive breeding efforts for biological conservation. Furthermore, bacterial taxa that persist in the captive state provide unique insight into symbiotic relationships with the host.

Seasonality, richness and prevalence of intestinal parasites of three neotropical primates (Alouatta seniculus, Ateles hybridus and Cebus versicolor) in a fragmented forest in Colombia.

Studies on parasites infecting non-human primates are essential to better understand the potential threat to humans of zoonoses transmission, particularly under the current processes of pervasive land use change and biodiversity loss. The natural ecosystems in the Middle Magdalena river basin in Colombia have suffered a dramatic reduction and transformation into pastures and agroindustrial monocultures, threatening their biodiversity, and probably affecting the dynamics between parasites and their hosts, as well as altering the disease transmission cycles between wild populations and humans. This study evaluated seasonality, prevalence and richness of intestinal parasites in three species of neotropical primates: Cebus versicolor, Ateles hybridus and Alouatta seniculus, in a fragmented forest in the Middle Magdalena river valley, Colombia. One hundred and eighty five faecal samples were collected between 2010 and 2015. Direct faecal smears were performed with saline solution (0.85%) and iodine solution (1%), in order to identify larvae and eggs based on their morphology. A large proportion of the samples examined (72.9%) was positive for intestinal parasites; seven families of nematodes were identified: Trichuridae, Trichostrongylidae, Oxyuridae, Strongyloididae, Ancylostomatidae, Ascarididae and Gnathostomatidae, two of protozoans: Entamoebidae and Balantiididae, as well as some eggs of trematodes, cestodes and acanthocephalans. Additionally, DNA extraction and sequencing were conducted on 30 faecal samples in order to identify Giardia sp. and Blastocystis hominis, two parasite species also present in humans. Molecular testing for Giardia sp. was negative and Blastocystis hominis was identified in a single sample of Alouatta seniculus. No clear patterns were observed for prevalence of intestinal parasites according to the season; nonetheless, parasite species richness was higher during the dry season. This study builds on our current understanding of intestinal parasites infecting wild neotropical primates and provides novel information on the patterns of intestinal parasites in primate communities exposed to anthropogenic disturbance.