Visible and near infrared reflectances measured from laboratory ice clouds.

We present laboratory results of the 0.68 microm visible (VIS) and 1.617 microm near infrared (NIR) reflectances typically used for inferring optical depth and ice crystal size from satellite radiometers, from ice clouds generated in a temperature controlled column cloud chamber. Two types of ice crystals were produced in this experiment: small columns and dendrites with mean maximum dimensions of about 17 and 35 microm. Within experimental uncertainty, the measured reflectances from ice clouds at both wavelengths agree reasonably well with the theoretical results computed from the plane-parallel adding-doubling method for radiative transfer using the measured ice particle morphology. We demonstrate that laboratory scattering and reflectance data for thin ice clouds with optical depths less than 0.4 can be used for validation of the thin cirrus optical depth and ice crystal size that have been routinely retrieved from the satellite VIS-NIR two channel pair.

Cirrus cloud top temperatures retrieved from radiances in the National Polar-Orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite System--Visible Infrared Imager Radiometer Suite 8.55 and 12.0 microm bandpasses.

We describe what is believed to be a new approach developed for the National Polar-Orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite System (NPOESS) to retrieve pixel-level, cirrus cloud top temperatures (CTTs) from radiances observed in the 8.55 and 12.0 microm bandpasses. The methodology solves numerically a set of nonlinear algebraic equations derived from the theory of radiative transfer based upon the correlation between emissivities in these two bandpasses. This new approach has been demonstrated using NASA's Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) as a proxy to Visible Infrared Imager Radiometer Suite (VIIRS) data. Many scenes have been analyzed covering a wide range of geophysical conditions, including single-layered and multilayered cirrus cloud situations along with diverse backgrounds and seasons. For single-layer clouds, the new approach compares very favorably with the MODIS 5 km resolution cloud products; the mean CTT for both methods are very close, while the standard deviation for the new approach is smaller. However, in multilayered cloud situations, the mean CTTs for the new approach appear to be colder than the CTTs from MODIS cloud products, which are acknowledged to be too warm. Finally, partly because the new approach is applied at the pixel level, CTTs do not increase toward cloud edges as is seen in the MODIS products. Based upon these initial results, the new approach to retrieve improved VIIRS cloud top properties has been incorporated into the ground-based data processing segment of the NPOESS system where prelaunch testing of all VIIRS algorithms continues.

Remote sensing of three-dimensional cirrus clouds from satellites: application to continuous-wave laser atmospheric transmission and backscattering.

A satellite remote sensing methodology has been developed to retrieve 3D ice water content (IWC) and mean effective ice crystal size of cirrus clouds from satellite data on the basis of a combination of the conventional retrieval of cloud optical depth and particle size in a horizontal plane and a parameterization of the vertical cloud profile involving temperature from sounding and/or analysis. The inferred 3D cloud fields of IWC and mean effective ice crystal size associated with two impressive cirrus clouds that occurred in the vicinity of northern Oklahoma on 18 April 1997 and 9 March 2000, obtained from the Department of Energy's Atmospheric Radiation Measurement Program, have been validated against the ice crystal size distributions that were collected independently from collocated and coincident aircraft optical probe measurements. The 3D cloud results determined from satellite data have been applied to the simulation of cw laser energy propagation, and we show the significance of 3D cloud geometry and inhomogeneity and spherical atmosphere on the transmitted and backscattered laser powers. Finally, we demonstrate that the 3D cloud fields derived from satellite remote sensing can be used for the 3D laser transmission and backscattering model for tactical application.

Comparison of the University of California at Los Angeles Line-by-Line Equivalent Radiative Transfer Model and the Moderate-Resolution Transmission Model for accuracy assessment of the National Polar-Orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite System's Visible-Infrared Imager-Radiometer Suite cloud algorithms.

To support the verification and implementation of the National Polar-Orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite System's Visible-Infrared Imaging-Radiometric Suite (VIIRS) algorithms used for inferring cloud environmental data records, an intercomparison effort has been carried out to assess the consistency between the simulated cloudy radiances-reflectances from the University of California at Los Angeles Line-by-Line Equivalent Radiative Transfer Model and those from the Moderate-Resolution Transmission Model (MODTRAN) with the 16 stream Discrete Ordinate Radiative Transfer Model (DISORT) incorporated. For typical ice and water cloud optical depths and particle sizes, we found discrepancies in the visible and near-infrared reflectances from the two models, which presumably are due to the difference in phase function (nonspherical versus Henyey-Greenstein), different numbers of phase function expansion terms (16 versus 200 terms), and different treatment of forward peak truncation in each model. Using the MODTRAN4, we also found substantial differences in the infrared radiances for optically thick clouds. These differences led to the discovery by MODTRAN4 developers of an inconsistency in the MODTRAN4-DISORT interface. MODTRAN4 developers corrected the inconsistency, which provided dramatic reductions in the differences between the two radiative transfer models. The comparison not only affects the prospective test plan for the VIIRS cloud algorithms but also should lead to improvements in future MODTRAN releases.

Surface aerosol radiative forcing derived from collocated ground-based radiometric observations during PRIDE, SAFARI, and ACE-Asia.

An approach is presented to estimate the surface aerosol radiative forcing by use of collocated cloud-screened narrowband spectral and thermal-offset-corrected radiometric observations during the Puerto Rico Dust Experiment 2000, South African Fire Atmosphere Research Initiative (SAFARI) 2000, and Aerosol Characterization Experiment-Asia 2001. We show that aerosol optical depths from the Multiple-Filter Rotating Shadowband Radiometer data match closely with those from the Cimel sunphotometer data for two SAFARI-2000 dates. The observed aerosol radiative forcings were interpreted on the basis of results from the Fu-Liou radiative transfer model, and, in some cases, cross checked with satellite-derived forcing parameters. Values of the aerosol radiative forcing and forcing efficiency, which quantifies the sensitivity of the surface fluxes to the aerosol optical depth, were generated on the basis of a differential technique for all three campaigns, and their scientific significance is discussed.

Remote sensing of cirrus cloud optical thickness and effective particle size for the National Polar-orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite System Visible/Infrared Imager Radiometer Suite: sensitivity to instrument noise and uncertainties in environmental parameters.

We describe sensitivity studies on the remote sensing of cirrus cloud optical thickness and effective particle size using the National Polar-orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite System Visible/Infrared Imager Radiometer Suite 0.67-, 1.24-, 1.61-, and 2.25-microm reflectances and thermal IR 3.70- and 10.76-microm radiances. To investigate the accuracy and precision of the solar and IR retrieval methods subject to instrument noise and uncertainties in environmental parameters, we carried out signal-to-noise ratio tests as well as the error budget study, where we used the University of California at Los Angeles line-by-line equivalent radiative transfer model to generate radiance tables for synthetic retrievals. The methodology and results of these error analyses are discussed.

Polar nephelometer for light-scattering measurements of ice crystals.

We report on a small, lightweight polar nephelometer for the measurement of the light-scattering properties of cloud particles, specifically designed for use on a balloonborne platform in cirrus cloud conditions. The instrument consists of 33 fiber-optic light guides positioned in a two-dimensional plane from 5 degrees to 175 degrees that direct the scattered light to photodiode detectors-amplifier units. The system uses an onboard computer and data acquisition card to collect and store the measured signals. The instrument's calibration is tested by measurement of light scattered into a two-dimensional plane from small water droplets generated by an ultrasonic humidifier. Excellent comparisons between the measured water-droplet scattering properties and expectations generated by Mie calculation are shown. The measured scattering properties of ice crystals generated in a cold chamber also compare reasonably well with the theoretical results based on calculations from a unified theory of light scattering by ice crystals that use the particle size distribution measured in the chamber.

Experimental and theoretical spectral reflection properties of ice clouds generated in a laboratory chamber.

In a preliminary experimental program, the measured bidirectional reflection properties between 1.0 and 3.5 mum from a grating spectrometer with a resolution of approximately 0.1 mum for ice crystal clouds generated in a cold chamber are compared with theoretical results computed from a line-by-line equivalent solar radiative transfer model. The theoretical calculations are based on the measured habits, concentrations, and sizes of the ice particles from replicas of the ice crystals that show a mean maximum size of approximately 7 mum. The experimental design was first tested with transmission measurements in a pure water-vapor environment that compare closely with theoretical expectations. Within the uncertainties and in consideration of the assumptions necessitated by the preliminary nature of this program, there is a close comparison between the experimental and theoretical results.

Efficient finite-difference time-domain scheme for light scattering by dielectric particles: application to aerosols.

We have examined the Maxwell-Garnett, inverted Maxwell-Garnett, and Bruggeman rules for evaluation of the mean permittivity involving partially empty cells at particle surface in conjunction with the finite-difference time-domain (FDTD) computation. Sensitivity studies show that the inverted Maxwell-Garnett rule is the most effective in reducing the staircasing effect. The discontinuity of permittivity at the interface of free space and the particle medium can be minimized by use of an effective permittivity at the cell edges determined by the average of the permittivity values associated with adjacent cells. The efficiency of the FDTD computational program is further improved by use of a perfectly matched layer absorbing boundary condition and the appropriate coding technique. The accuracy of the FDTD method is assessed on the basis of a comparison of the FDTD and the Mie calculations for ice spheres. This program is then applied to light scattering by convex and concave aerosol particles. Comparisons of the scattering phase function for these types of aerosol with those for spheres and spheroids show substantial differences in backscattering directions. Finally, we illustrate that the FDTD method is robust and flexible in computing the scattering properties of particles with complex morphological configurations.

Laser transmission through thin cirrus clouds.

A near-infrared airborne-laser transmission model for thin cirrus clouds has been developed on the basis of the successive-order-of-scattering approach to account for multiple scattering by randomly and horizontally oriented ice crystals associated with an aircraft-target system. Direct transmission and transmission due to multiple scattering are formulated specifically for this geometric system, in which scattering and absorption associated with aerosols, water vapor, and air are accounted for. A number of sensitivity experiments have been performed for investigation of the effect of aircraft-target position, cirrus cloud optical depth, and ice crystal size on laser transmission for tactical applications. We show that transmission contributions produced by orders of scattering higher than 1 are small and can be neglected. The possibility of horizontal orientation of ice crystals can enhance transmission of laser beams in the aircraft-target geometry. Transmitted energy is strongly dependent on the horizontal distance between the aircraft and the target and on the cloud optical depth as well as on whether the cloud is above or below the aircraft.

Origin of Kern's arc.

With the aid of computer-simulated halo patterns, we show that Kern's arc, as seen on the latitude of the circumzenithal arc and on the other side of the zenith, is produced by double-plate ice crystals with a vertical principal axis. Light rays that contribute to Kern's arc are demonstrated by geometric ray tracing. We also discuss the condition under which an arc that is opposite a circumhorizontal arc can appear.

Geometric-optics-integral-equation method for light scattering by nonspherical ice crystals.

A new geometric-optics model has been developed for the calculation of the single-scattering and polarization properties for arbitrarily oriented hexagonal ice crystals. The model uses the ray-tracing technique to solve the near field on the ice crystal surface, which is then transformed to the far field on the basis of the electromagnetic equivalence theorem. From comparisons with the results computed by the finite-difference time domain method, we show that the novel geometric-optics method can be applied to the computation of the extinction cross section and single-scattering albedo for ice crystals with size parameters along the minimum dimension as small as ~6. Overall agreement has also been obtained for the phase function when size parameters along the minimum dimension are larger than ~20. We demonstrate that the present model converges to the conventional ray-tracing method for large size parameters and produces single-scattering results close to those computed by the finite-difference time domain method for size parameters along the minimum dimension smaller than ~20. The present geometric-optics method can therefore bridge the gap between the conventional ray-tracing and the exact numerical methods that are applicable to large and small size parameters, respectively.

Remote sensing of cirrus cloud parameters using advanced very-high-resolution radiometer 3.7- and 1 O.9-microm channels.

We develop a retrieval scheme by using advanced very-high-resolution radiometer (AVHRR) 3.7- and 10.9-microm data to compute simultaneously the temperature, optical depth, and mean effective ice-crystal size for cirrus clouds. The methodology involves the numerical solution of a set of nonlinear algebraic equations derived from the theory of radiative transfer. The solution requires the correlation of emissivities of two channels in terms of the effective extinction ratio. The dependence of this ratio on ice-crystal size distribution is examined by using an adding-doubling radiative transfer program. Investigation of the effects of cirrus parameters on upwelling radiances reveals that the brightnesstemperature difference between the two channels becomes larger for colder cirrus and smaller ice-crystal sizes. We apply the current retrieval scheme to satellite data collected at 0930 UTC, 28 October 1986, over the region of the First International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project Regional Experiment CirrusIntesive Field Observation. We select the data over an area (~ 44 degrees N, 92 degrees W) near Fort McCoy, Wisconsin, for analysis. The retrieved cirrus heights compare reasonably well with lidar measurements taken at Fort McCoy 2 h after a satellite overpass at the target region. The retrieved mean effective crystal size is close to that derived from in situ aircraft measurements over Madison, Wisconsin, six hours after a satellite overpass.

Infrared polarization signature from cirrus clouds.

Maximum infrared polarization signature of up to 1% is predicted in tropical subvisual cirrus involving randomly oriented ice crystals, based on radiative transfer calculations.

Infrared transmission through cirrus clouds: a radiative model for target detection.

An IR transmission model for thin and subvisual cirrus clouds composed of hexagonal ice crystals with a specific use for target detection has been developed. The present model includes parameterizations of the ice crystal size distribution and the position of cirrus clouds in terms of ambient temperature. To facilitate the scattering and absorption calculations for hexagonal column and plate crystals in connection with transmission calculations, we have developed parameterized equations for their single scattering properties by using the results computed from a geometric ray-tracing program. The successive order-of-scattering approach has been used to account for multiple scattering of ice crystals associated with a target-detector system. The direct radiance, path radiance, and radiances produced by multiple scattering and background radiation involving cirrus clouds have been computed for 3.7- and 10-,microm wavelengths. We show that the background radiance at the 3.7-,microm wavelength is relatively small so that a high contrast may be obtained using this wavelength for the detection of airborne and ground-based objects in the presence of thin cirrus clouds. Finally, using the present model, including a simple prediction scheme for the ice crystal size distribution and cloud position, the transmission of infrared radiation through cirrus clouds can be efficiently evaluated if the target-detector geometry is defined.

Highly supercooled cirrus cloud water: confirmation and climatic implications.

Liquid cloud droplets supercooled to temperatures approaching -40 degrees C have been detected at the base of a cirrostratus cloud through a combination of ground-based, polarization laser radar (lidar) and in situ aircraft measurements, Solar and thermal infrared radiative budget calculations based on these observatoins indicate that significant changes in the atmospheric heating distribution and the surface radiative budget may be attributed to liquid layers in cirrus clouds.

Polarized light scattering by hexagonal ice crystals: theory.

A scattering model involving complete polarization information for arbitrarily oriented hexagonal columns and plates is developed on the basis of the ray tracing principle which includes contributions from geometric reflection and refraction and Fraunhofer diffraction. We present a traceable and analytic procedure for computation of the scattered electric field and the associated path length for rays undergoing external reflection, two refractions, and internal reflections. We also derive an analytic expression for the scattering electric field in the limit of Fraunhofer diffraction due to an oblique hexagonal aperture. Moreover the theoretical foundation and procedures are further developed for computation of the scattering phase matrix containing 16 elements for randomly oriented hexagonal crystals. Results of the six independent scattering phase matrix elements for randomly oriented large columns and small plates, having length-to-radius ratios of 300/60 and 8/10 microm, respectively, reveal a number of interesting and pronounced features in various regions of the scattering angle when a visible wavelength is utilized in the ray tracing program. Comparisons of the computed scattering phase function, degree of linear polarization, and depolarization ratio for randomly oriented columns and plates with the experimental scattering data obtained by Sassen and Liou for small plates are carried out. We show that the present theoretical results within the context of the geometric optics are in general agreement with the laboratory data, especially for the depolarization ratio.