DFT Calculations Rationalize Unconventional Regioselectivity in PdII-Catalyzed Defluorinative Alkylation of gem-Difluorocyclopropanes with Hydrazones.

Density functional theory (DFT) calculations have been conducted to gain insight into the unique formation of the branched alkylation product in the PdII-catalyzed defluorinative alkylation of gem-difluorocyclopropanes with hydrazones. The reaction is established to occur in sequence through oxidative addition, ß-F elimination, η1-η3 isomerization, transmetalation, η3-η1 isomerization, 3,3'-reductive elimination, deprotonation/N2 extrusion, and proton abstraction. The rate-determining step of the reaction is identified as the ß-F elimination, featuring an energy barrier of 28.6 kcal/mol. The 3,3'-reductive elimination transition states are the regioselectivity-determining transition states. The favorable noncovalent π-π interaction between the naphthyl group of gem-difluorocyclopropane and the phenyl group of hydrazone is found to be mainly responsible for the observed regioselectivity.

Theoretical Insight into the Palladium-Catalyzed Prenylation and Geranylation of Oxindoles with Isoprene.

This work presents a comprehensive mechanistic study of the ligand-controlled palladium-catalyzed prenylation (with C5 added) and geranylation (with C10 added) reactions of oxindole with isoprene. The calculated results indicate that the prenylation with the bis-phosphine ligand and geranylation with the monophosphine ligand fundamentally share a common mechanism. This mechanism involves the formation of two crucial species: a η3-allyl-Pd(II) cation and an oxindole carbon anion. Furthermore, the reactions necessitate the assistance of a second oxindole molecule, which serves as a Brønsted acid, providing a proton to generate the oxindole nitrogen anion. The oxindole nitrogen anion then acts as a Brønsted base, abstracting a C-H proton from another oxindole molecule to form an oxindole carbon anion. These mechanistic details differ significantly from those proposed in the experimental work. The present calculations do not support the presence of the Pd-H species and the η3, η3-diallyl-Pd(II) intermediate, which were previously suggested in experiments. The theoretical results rationalize the experimental finding that the bis-phosphine ligand favors the prenylation of oxindole, while the monophosphine ligand enables the geranylation of oxindole.

Density Functional Theory Study of Gold-Catalyzed 1,2-Diarylation of Alkenes: π-Activation versus Migratory Insertion Mechanisms.

Density functional theory calculations are carried out to better understand the first gold-catalyzed 1,2-diarylation reactions of alkenes reported in the recent literature. The calculations on two representative reactions, aryl alkene/aryl iodide coupling pair (the aryl-I bond is located outside the aryl alkene) versus iodoaryl alkene/indole coupling pair (the aryl-I bond is located in the aryl alkene), confirm that the reaction involves a π-activation mechanism rather than the general migratory insertion mechanism in previously known metal catalysis by Pd, Ni, and Cu complexes. Theoretical results rationalize the regioselectivity of the reactions controlled by the aryl-I bond position (intermolecular or intramolecular) and also the ligand and substituent effects on the reactivity.

DFT Mechanistic Study of IrIII/NiII-Metallaphotoredox-Catalyzed Difluoromethylation of Aryl Bromides.

The work by MacMillan et al. ( Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. 2018, 57, 12543-12548) developed an IrIII/NiII-metallaphotoredox-catalyzed difluoromethylation strategy of aryl bromides using CHF2Br as the CHF2 reagent in the presence of tris(trimethylsilyl)silane. Here, we present a density functional theory (DFT)-based computational study to understand special dual catalysis promoting the C(sp2)-C(sp3) coupling. The calculated results show that the energetically more favorable pathway involves the reductive quenching of a photocatalyst (IrIII/*IrIII/IrII/IrIII) and a Ni0-initiated catalytic cycle (Ni0/NiI/NiIII/NiI/Ni0 or Ni0/NiII/NiIII/NiI/Ni0). The calculations reveal not only the mechanistic details delivering the difluoromethylarene product but also the molecular-level picture of the generation of Ni0 species from the NiII precatalyst. Moreover, the calculations also rationalize the observed stoichiometric effect of CHF2Br in the reactions of aryl bromides with different substituted groups.

Mechanistic Insight into Palladium-Catalyzed γ-C(sp3)-H Arylation of Alkylamines with 2-Iodobenzoic Acid: Role of the o-Carboxylate Group.

Density functional theory calculations were performed to understand the distinctly different reactivities of o-carboxylate-substituted aryl halides and pristine aryl halides toward the PdII-catalyzed γ-C(sp3)-H arylation of secondary alkylamines. It is found that, when 2-iodobenzoic acid (a representative of o-carboxylate-substituted aryl halides) is used as an aryl transfer agent, the arylation reaction is energetically favorable, while when the pristine aryl halide iodobenzene is used as the aryl transfer reagent, the reaction is kinetically difficult. Our calculations showed an operative PdII/PdIV/PdII redox cycle, which differs in the mechanistic details from the cycle proposed by the experimental authors. The improved mechanism emphasizes that (i) the intrinsic role of the o-carboxylate group is facilitating the C(sp3)-C(sp2) bond reductive elimination from PdIV rather than facilitating the oxidative addition of the aryl iodide on PdII, (ii) the decarboxylation occurs at the PdII species instead of the PdIV species, and (iii) the 1,2-arylpalladium migration proceeds via a stepwise mechanism where the reductive elimination occurs before decarboxylation, not via a concerted mechanism that merges the three processes decarboxylation, 1,2-arylpalladium migration, and C(sp3)-C(sp2) reductive elimination into one. The experimentally observed exclusive site selectivity of the reaction was also rationalized well.

DFT Study on Photosensitizer-Free Visible-Light-Mediated Au-Catalyzed cis-Difunctionalization of Alkynes: Mechanism and Selectivities as Compared to Rh Catalysis.

Density functional theory (DFT) calculations were performed to investigate the photosensitizer-free visible-light-mediated gold-catalyzed cis-difunctionalization of alkynes with aryl diazonium salts. The detailed reaction mechanism is established, and the observed regio- and chemoselectivities are rationalized. The results are compared to those of the rhodium-catalyzed cis-difunctionalization of alkynes. It is indicated that the excitation of the aryl diazonium salt initiates the photocatalytic cycle, and the following single-electron transfer between the Au(I) catalyst and the excited aryl diazonium salt affords the key aryl radical. Both gold- and rhodium-catalyzed reactions involve two major steps: alkyne insertion into the M-N or M-C bond (M = Au, Rh), and C-C or C-N reductive elimination from the M(III) center. The cis-difunctionalized product can be obtained by the trimethylsilyl (TMS)-substituted alkyne through the gold catalysis or by the Ph-substituted alkyne through the rhodium catalysis. The catalyst-dependent reactivity switch of TMS- and Ph-substituted alkynes is attributed to the catalyst-induced shift of the rate-determining step.

Mechanistic Study on the Decarboxylative sp3 C-N Cross-Coupling between Alkyl Carboxylic Acids and Nitrogen Nucleophiles via Dual Copper and Photoredox Catalysis.

This work presents a density functional theory (DFT)-based theoretical study on the cross-coupling reaction of alkyl carboxylic acids and nitrogen nucleophiles via dual copper and photoredox catalysis developed by MacMillan et al. [Nature, 2018, 559, 83-87]. The calculations showed the mechanistic details of three subprocesses proposed in the experimental study, including production of alkyl radicals, iridium(III) photoredox cycle, and copper(I) thermalredox cycle. It is found that alkyl radicals can be easily produced from primary, secondary, or tertiary carboxylic acids through iodonium activation. The energetically most favorable cross-coupling pathway involves coordination, deprotonation, single electron transfer (SET), radical addition, and reductive elimination. For the chlorinated indazole nucleophile (R1), the preferred C-N coupling product from the 1H-tautomer is attributed to its higher stability relative to the 2H-tautomer and the high barrier involved in the tautomerism from the 1H-tautomer to the 2H-tautomer. Meanwhile, in the case of heterocycle (R2), the C-N cross-coupling preferentially occurs at the indazole nitrogen rather than at the primary amide nitrogen, which is confirmed to be due to the stronger acidity of the indazole N-H unit, in comparison with the primary amide N-H unit in the indazole side chain. The theoretical results provide help for understanding the molecular mechanism and regioselectivity of the title reaction.

Theoretical Insight into the Mechanism and Origin of Divergent Reactivity in the Synthesis of Benzo-Heterocycles from o-Alkynylbenzamides Catalyzed by Gold and Platinum Complexes.

This work presents a DFT study on the mechanism and origin of catalyst-controlled divergent reactivity in the synthesis of benzo-heterocycles from o-alkynylbenzamides by Au(I)/Pt(IV) catalysis. The results indicate that the transformations proceed via a nucleophilic cyclization process. In the Au(I) catalysis, the preferred O-attack mode mainly originates from the symmetry match in the dominant bond-forming interaction between the lone-pair orbital of carbonyl-O and the in-plane alkyne π* orbital, and the electronic property of the ligand controls the O-5-exo-dig/O-6-endo-dig selectivity. The preference for the N-attack mode in Pt(IV) catalysis is attributed to the stronger coordinate capability of carbonyl-O than amino-N in the substrate to PtCl4, and the regioselective N-6-endo-dig or N-5-exo-dig cyclization depends on the stronger electrostatic interaction between the amino-N and alkynyl-Cß atoms. The theoretical results provide a fundamental understanding of why and how gold and platinum complexes catalyze the cyclization of o-alkynylbenzamides with different chemo- and regioselectivities.

Theoretical Insight into the Au(I)-Catalyzed Intermolecular Condensation of Homopropargyl Alcohols with Terminal Alkynes: Reactant Stoichiometric Ratio-Controlled Chemodivergence.

The mechanisms and chemoselectivities on the Au(I)-catalyzed intermolecular condensation between homopropargyl alcohols and terminal alkynes were investigated by performing DFT calculations. The reaction was indicated to involve three stages: transformation of the homopropargyl alcohol (R1) via intramolecular cyclization to the cyclic vinyl ether (R1'), formation of the C-2-arylalkynyl cyclic ether (P1) via hydroalkynylation of R1' with phenylacetylene (R2), and conversion from P1 to 2,3-dihydro-oxepine (P2). The results revealed the origin of the reaction divergence and rationalized the experimental observations that a 1:3 reactant stoichiometric ratio affords P1 as the major product, whereas the 1:1.1 ratio results in P2 in high yield. The reactant stoichiometric ratio-controlled divergent reactivity is attributed to different catalytic activities of the gold catalyst toward different reaction stages. In the 1:3 situation, the excess R2 induces the Au catalyst toward its dimerization and/or hydration, inhibiting the conversion of P1 to P2 and resulting in product P1. Without excess R2, the Au catalysis follows a general cascade reaction, leading to product P2. Theoretical results described a general strategy controlling the reaction divergence by a different reactant stoichiometric ratio. This strategy may be enlightening for chemists who are exploring various synthesis methods with high chemo-, regio-, and enantioselectivities.

Cleavage of the ß-O-4 bond in a lignin model compound using the acidic ionic liquid 1-H-3-methylimidazolium chloride as catalyst: a DFT mechanistic study.

Understanding the mechanism for the catalyzed cleavage of the ß-O-4 ether linkage in lignin is crucial to developing efficient strategies for depolymerizing lignin. In this work, veratrylglycerol-ß-guaiacyl ether (VG) was used as a lignin model compound in a theoretical investigation of the mechanism for the cleavage of the ß-O-4 bond as catalyzed by the acidic ionic liquid (IL) 1-H-3-methylimidazolium chloride ([HMIM]Cl). The reaction was found to involve two processes-dehydration and hydrolysis-in which the cation functions as a Brønsted acid (donating a proton) and the anion acts as a nucleophile (promoting dehydration) or interacts with the substrate through hydrogen bonding, stabilizing the intermediate. These roles of the anion and cation of [HMIM]Cl explain why the [HMIM]Cl medium catalyzes the depolymerization of lignin. In addition, calculations predict that adding formaldehyde during the depolymerization of VG prevents the condensation of VG without significantly altering the mechanism of depolymerization, thus suggesting a method for potentially improving the efficiency of lignin depolymerization.

Where do photogenerated holes at the g-C3N4/water interface go for water splitting: H2O or OH-?

Graphitic carbon nitride (g-C3N4), a metal-free two-dimensional photocatalyst, has drawn increasing attention due to its application in photocatalytic water splitting. However, its quantum efficiency is limited by the poor performance of the oxygen evolution reaction (OER). Therefore, it is important to clarify the behavior of photogenerated holes in the OER. In this work, we investigate the energy level alignment using the GW method and the exciton properties using the Bethe-Salpeter equation within the ab initio many-body Green's function theory at the g-C3N4/water interface. We found that the g-C3N4 substrate can elevate energy levels of OH- and H2O molecules at the interface by up to 0.6 eV. This effect can make the electronic levels of OH- surpass the valence band maximum (VBM) of g-C3N4. However, orbital energies of H2O molecules remain far below the VBM of g-C3N4. This indicates that a photogenerated hole after exciting g-C3N4 can relax to OH- instead of neutral H2O. Moreover, OH- could be directly oxidized through electron transfer from OH- to g-C3N4 by light near the optical absorption edge of g-C3N4, which is beneficial for efficient carrier separation at the interface.

Theoretical insight into the mechanism, regioselectivity, and substituent group effect of Rh-catalyzed synthesis of 1,2-benzothiazines from NH-sulfoximines and diazo compounds.

This work presents a computational study of RhIII-catalyzed synthesis of 1,2-benzothiazines from NH-sulfoximines and diazo compounds reported by Bolm et al. (Angew. Chem., Int. Ed., 2015, 54, 12349). The reaction involves five sequent processes: elimination of dinitrogen, C-H activation, carbene insertion, protonation, and dehydration, and the C-H activation is identified as the rate-determining step with a barrier of 33.1 kcal mol-1. Phenyl sulfoximine is found to be the most favorable substrate with the lowest barrier in comparison with methoxybenzene sulfoximine and nitrobenzene sulfoximine. The noncovalent interaction is indicated to be mainly responsible for the experimentally observed regioselectivity. The theoretical results are expected to provide valuable guidance and assistance for the synthesis of 1,2-benzothiazines.

The Dual Role of Gold(I) Complexes in Photosensitizer-Free Visible-Light-Mediated Gold-Catalyzed 1,2-Difunctionalization of Alkynes: A DFT Study.

Recently, a photosensitizer-free visible-light-mediated gold-catalyzed 1,2-difunctionalization of alkynes has been developed. However, mechanistic aspects of this unconventional photocatalytic reaction remain largely obscure. With the aid of density functional theory (DFT) and time-dependent (TD)DFT calculations, we mimicked the photosensitizer-free visible-light-mediated gold-catalyzed 1,2-difunctionalization of 1-phenyl-1-hexyne and focused on two fundamental questions: how does photoredox catalysis occur without assistance of an exogenous photosensitizer under visible light irradiation, and what is the detailed mechanism of the gold-catalyzed 1,2-difunctionalization of alkynes? The results reveal the dual role of the gold(I) complex in light-harvesting and catalysis, where a charge-transfer (CT) complex formed by the association of gold(I) catalyst with PhN2 BF4 acts as a photosensitizer, which can undergo an electronic transition between the gold(I) moiety and PhN2 BF4 of the CT complex into an excited electronic state and afford a charge-transfer exciplex. The oxidative quenching of the exciplex generates the gold(II) species and diazobenzene radical. The subsequent catalytic cycle proceeds via two parallel pathways, involving the radical addition to gold(II) and gold(I) centers, respectively, and in these two pathways the reductive elimination of gold(III) species is identified as the rate-determining step of the whole reaction. The present study could provide a new understanding for exogenous-photosensitizer-free visible-light-mediated gold-catalyzed processes.

Theoretical Insight into the Mechansim and Origin of Ligand-Controlled Regioselectivity in Homogenous Gold-Catalyzed Intramolecular Hydroarylation of Alkynes.

This work aims at understanding the mechanism and regioselectivity in ligand-controlled gold-catalyzed divergent intramolecular hydroarylation of alkynes reported by Jiang et al. ( J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2016 , 138 , 5218 - 5221 ). Focusing on a representative alkyne, N-propargyl-N-tosylaniline, we conducted a detailed computational study on the ortho- and para-position hydroarylation of the alkyne catalyzed by gold(I) catalysts with different ligands. Both the ortho- and para-position hydroarylation reactions are found to follow a similar three-stage mechanism: electrophilic cyclization, proton loss, and protiodeauration. The initial electrophilic cyclization was identified as the rate- and regiochemistry-determining step. With the flexible electron-deficient phosphite ligand, the ortho-position cyclization is identified as the energetically more favorable pathway, while with the rigid electron-abundant phosphine (Xphos) ligand, the dominant pathway turns to the para-position cyclization. The theoretical results are in good agreement with the experimental observations. The π-π interaction between alkynyl phenyl and the directing acylamino group are found to be mainly responsible for the observed ortho-selectivity, while a combination of favorable noncovalent CH···π interaction and steric repulsion between Xphos ligand and alkynyl group contributes to the observed exclusive para-selectivity. The present calculations provide deeper insight into the mechanism and origin of regioselectivity of the title reaction.

Theoretical Elucidation of the Mechanism and Kinetic Experimental Phenomena on the Esterification of α-Tocopherol with Succinic Anhydride: Catalysis of a Histidine Derivative vs an Imidazolium-Based Ionic Liquid.

DFT calculations have been conducted to gain insight into the mechanism and kinetics of the esterification of α-tocopherol with succinic anhydride catalyzed by a histidine derivative or an imidazolium-based ionic liquid (IL). The two catalytic reactions involve an intrinsically consistent molecular mechanism: a rate-determining, concerted nucleophilic substitution followed by a facile proton-transfer process. The histidine derivative or the IL anion is shown to play a decisive role, acting as a Brönsted base by abstracting the hydroxyl proton of α-tocopherol to favor the nucleophilic substitution of the hydroxyl oxygen of α-tocopherol on succinic anhydride. The calculated free energy barriers of two reactions (15.8 kcal/mol for the histamine-catalyzed reaction and 22.9 kcal/mol for the IL-catalyzed reaction) together with their respective characteristic features, the catalytic reaction with a catalytic amount of histamine vs the catalytic reaction with an excessed amount of the IL, rationalize well the experimentally observed kinetics that the former has faster initial rate but longer reaction time while the latter is initiated slowly but completed in a much shorter time.

Bidirectional Electron-Transfer in Polypeptides with Various Secondary Structures.

The protein-mediated bidirectional electron transfer (ET) is the foundation of protein molecular wire, and plays an important role in the rapid detection of oxo-guanine-adenine DNA mismatches by MutY glycosylase. However, the influences of structural transitions on bidirectional ET are still not clear. In this work, the modified through-bond coupling (MTBC) model was further refined to correlate the structural transition and ET rate more quantitatively. With this model, various polyglycine structures (310-helix, α-helix, ß-sheets, linear, polyproline helical I and II) were studied to explore the influences of structural transitions on bidirectional ET. It was found that the HOMO-LUMO gaps (ΔE) in CN (from the carboxyl to amino terminus) direction are much lower than that in opposite direction, except for polypro I. However, with the equal tunneling energy, the differences between bidirectional ET rates are slight for all structures. In structural transitions, we found that the ET rates are not only affected by the Ramachandran angles, but also correlated to the alignment of C = O vectors, the alignment of peptide planes and the rearrangement of other structure factors. The detailed information can be used to rationalize the inhomogeneous ET across different protein structures and design more efficient protein molecular wires.

DFT Study on the Formation Mechanism of Normal and Abnormal N-Heterocyclic Carbene-Carbon Dioxide Adducts from the Reaction of an Imidazolium-Based Ionic Liquid with CO2.

To illustrate the formation mechanism of normal and abnormal N-heterocyclic carbene-carbon dioxide adducts (NHC-CO2 and aNHC-CO2), we implement density functional theory calculations on the reactions of two imidazolium-based ionic liquids ([C2C1Im][OAc] and [C2C1Im][CH3SO3]) with CO2. The reaction of [C2C1Im][OAc] with CO2 is mimicked using the gas phase model, implicit solvent model, and combined explicit-implicit solvent model. In the gas phase, the calculated barriers at 125 °C and 10 MPa are 12.1 kcal/mol for the formation of NHC-CO2 and 22.5 kcal/mol for the formation of aNHC-CO2, and the difference is significant (10.4 kcal/mol). However, the difference becomes less important (1.5 kcal/mol) as the solvation effect is considered more realistically using the combined explicit-implicit solvent model, rationalizing the experimental observation of aNHC-CO2 adduct in the [C2C1Im][OAc]-CO2 system. The anion of the ionic liquid is shown to play a substantial role, which can adjust the reactivity of imidazolium cation toward CO2: upon replacement of the basic [OAc]- anion with a less basic [CH3SO3]- anion, the reaction becomes very difficult, as indicated by high free energy barriers involved (41.4 kcal/mol for the formation of NHC-CO2 and 39.2 kcal/mol for the formation of aNHC-CO2). This is in agreement with the fact that neither NHC-CO2 or aNHC-CO2 is formed in the [C2C1Im][CH3SO3]-CO2 system, emphasizing the important dependence of the reactivity on the basicity of the anion of imidazolium-based ionic liquids for the formation of NHC- and aNHC-CO2 adducts.

The mechanism for the formation of OH radicals in condensed-phase water under ultraviolet irradiation.

Irradiation on liquid water and ice by ultraviolet light in the range of 150-200 nm can create volatile OH radicals which react with other organic and inorganic molecules actively. However, the mechanism for OH radical formation in the condensed-phase water in this energy range is still unclear. To uncover this mechanism we studied the excited-state behaviors of ice using first-principles calculations based on many-body Green's function theory. First, we showed that the long-wavelength optical absorption at the Urbach tail (190-300 nm) can be attributed to inherent hydroxide ions or transient structures formed in the autoionization process. Second, we revealed that creation of the OH radicals can be attributed to two mechanisms. Irradiation by the light at the Urbach tail excites an electron out of the hydroxide ion, leaving a neutral OH radical behind. By the light around 150 nm, OH radicals can be produced barrierlessly via direct water photolysis through concerted proton and electron transfer. Our results provide valuable insights into the excited-state dynamics of condensed-phase water, helping us understand in depth the photocatalytic reactions, radiation biology and chemistry.

Modeling interactions between a ß-O-4 type lignin model compound and 1-allyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride ionic liquid.

Aiming at understanding the molecular mechanism of the lignin dissolution in imidazolium-based ionic liquids (ILs), this work presents a combined quantum chemistry (QC) calculation and molecular dynamics (MD) simulation study on the interaction of the lignin model compound, veratrylglycerol-ß-guaiacyl ether (VG) with 1-allyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride ([Amim]Cl). The monomer of VG is shown to feature a strong intramolecular hydrogen bond, and its dimer is indicated to present important π-π stacking and intermolecular hydrogen bonding interactions. The interactions of both the cation and anion of [Amim]Cl with VG are shown to be stronger than that between the two monomers, indicating that [Amim]Cl is capable of dissolving lignin. While Cl- anion forms a hydrogen-bonded complex with VG, the imidazolium cation interacts with VG via both the π-π stacking and intermolecular hydrogen bonding. The calculated interaction energies between VG and the IL or its components (the cation, anion, and ion pair) indicate the anion plays a more important role than the cation for the dissolution of lignin in the IL. Theoretical results provide help for understanding the molecular mechanism of lignin dissolution in imidazolium-based IL. The theoretical calculations on the interaction between the lignin model compound and [Amim]Cl ionic liquid indicate that the anion of [Amim]Cl plays a more important role for lignin dissolution although the cation also makes a substantial contribution.

Theoretical Insight into the Conversion Mechanism of Glucose to Fructose Catalyzed by CrCl2 in Imidazolium Chlorine Ionic Liquids.

To better understand the efficient transformation of glucose to fructose catalyzed by chromium chlorides in imidazolium-based ionic liquids (ILs), density functional theory calculations have been carried out on a model system which describes the catalytic reaction by CrCl2 in 1,3-dimethylimidazolium chlorine (MMImCl) ionic liquid (IL). The reaction is shown to involve three fundamental processes: ring opening, 1,2-H migration, and ring closure. The reaction is calculated to exergonic by 3.8 kcal/mol with an overall barrier of 37.1 kcal/mol. Throughout all elementary steps, both CrCl2 and MMImCl are found to play substantial roles. The Cr center, as a Lewis acid, coordinates to two hydroxyl group oxygen atoms of glucose to bidentally rivet the substrate, and the imidazolium cation plays a dual role of proton shuttle and H-bond donor due to its intrinsic acidic property, while the Cl- anion is identified as a Bronsted/Lewis base and also a H-bond acceptor. Our present calculations emphasize that in the rate-determining step the 1,2-H migration concertedly occurs with the deprotonation of O2-H hydroxyl group, which is in nature different from the stepwise mechanism proposed in the early literature. The present results provide a molecule-level understanding for the isomerization mechanism of glucose to fructose catalyzed by chromium chlorides in imidazolium chlorine ILs.