ABSTRACT
BACKGROUND: Although DHFR gene amplification has long been known as a major mechanism for methotrexate (MTX) resistance in cancer, the early changes and detailed development of the resistance are not yet fully understood. METHODS: We performed genomic, transcriptional and proteomic analyses of human colon cancer cells with sequentially increasing levels of MTX-resistance. RESULTS: The genomic amplification evolved in three phases (pre-amplification, homogenously staining region (HSR) and extrachromosomal DNA (ecDNA)). We confirm that genomic amplification and increased expression of DHFR, with formation of HSRs and especially ecDNAs, is the major driver of resistance. However, DHFR did not play a detectable role in the early phase. In the late phase (ecDNA), increase in FAM151B protein level may also have an important role by decreasing sensitivity to MTX. In addition, although MSH3 and ZFYVE16 may be subject to different posttranscriptional regulations and therefore protein expressions are decreased in ecDNA stages compared to HSR stages, they still play important roles in MTX resistance. CONCLUSION: The study provides a detailed evolutionary trajectory of MTX-resistance and identifies new targets, especially ecDNAs, which could help to prevent drug resistance. It also presents a proof-of-principal approach which could be applied to other cancer drug resistance studies.
Subject(s)
Drug Resistance, Neoplasm , Gene Amplification , Methotrexate , Tetrahydrofolate Dehydrogenase , Humans , Methotrexate/pharmacology , Drug Resistance, Neoplasm/genetics , Tetrahydrofolate Dehydrogenase/genetics , Tetrahydrofolate Dehydrogenase/metabolism , Cell Line, Tumor , Colonic Neoplasms/genetics , Colonic Neoplasms/drug therapy , Colonic Neoplasms/pathology , Antimetabolites, Antineoplastic/pharmacology , Gene Expression Regulation, Neoplastic/drug effects , Genomics/methodsABSTRACT
Neutrophils in the tumor microenvironment have anti-tumorigenic (N1) or pro-tumor igenic (N2) functions.N1 neutrophils are manipulated to have cytotoxicity against tumors;N2 neutrophils can lead to the tumorigenesis,tumor growth,metastasis and tumor angiogenesis by secreting neutrophil elastase,matrix metalloproteinases,cytokines and chemokines.This review summarizes the biological characteristics of N1 and N2 neutrophils in tumor immunology.
