Incremental Contributions of FbaA and Other Impetigo-Associated Surface Proteins to Fitness and Virulence of a Classical Group A Streptococcal Skin Strain.

Group A streptococci (GAS) are highly prevalent human pathogens whose primary ecological niche is the superficial epithelial layers of the throat and/or skin. Many GAS strains with a strong tendency to cause pharyngitis are distinct from strains that tend to cause impetigo; thus, genetic differences between them may confer host tissue-specific virulence. In this study, the FbaA surface protein gene was found to be present in most skin specialist strains but largely absent from a genetically related subset of pharyngitis isolates. In an ΔfbaA mutant constructed in the impetigo strain Alab49, loss of FbaA resulted in a slight but significant decrease in GAS fitness in a humanized mouse model of impetigo; the ΔfbaA mutant also exhibited decreased survival in whole human blood due to phagocytosis. In assays with highly sensitive outcome measures, Alab49ΔfbaA was compared to other isogenic mutants lacking virulence genes known to be disproportionately associated with classical skin strains. FbaA and PAM (i.e., the M53 protein) had additive effects in promoting GAS survival in whole blood. The pilus adhesin tip protein Cpa promoted Alab49 survival in whole blood and appears to fully account for the antiphagocytic effect attributable to pili. The finding that numerous skin strain-associated virulence factors make slight but significant contributions to virulence underscores the incremental contributions to fitness of individual surface protein genes and the multifactorial nature of GAS-host interactions.

Detection of Actinobacillus Pleuropneumoniae ApxIV Toxin Antibody in Serum and Oral Fluid Specimens from Pigs Inoculated Under Experimental Conditions.

INTRODUCTION: The prevention and control of Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae in commercial production settings is based on serological monitoring. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) have been developed to detect specific antibodies against a variety of A. pleuropneumoniae antigens, including long-chain lipopolysaccharides (LPS) and the ApxIV toxin, a repeats-in-toxin (RTX) exotoxin unique to A. pleuropneumoniae and produced by all serovars. The objective of this study was to describe ApxIV antibody responses in serum and oral fluid of pigs. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Four groups of pigs (six pigs per group) were inoculated with A. pleuropneumoniae serovars 1, 5, 7, or 12. Weekly serum samples and daily oral fluid samples were collected from individual pigs for 56 days post inoculation (DPI) and tested by LPS and ApxIV ELISAs. The ApxIV ELISA was run in three formats to detect immunlgobulins M, G, and A (IgM, IgG and IgA) while the LPS ELISA detected only IgG. RESULTS: All pigs inoculated with A. pleuropneumoniae serovars 1 and 7 were LPS ELISA serum antibody positive from DPI 14 to 56. A transient and weak LPS ELISA antibody response was observed in pigs inoculated with serovar 5 and a single antibody positive pig was observed in serovar 12 at ≥35 DPI. Notably, ApxIV serum and oral fluid antibody responses in pig inoculated with serovars 1 and 7 reflected the patterns observed for LPS antibody, albeit with a 14 to 21 day delay. CONCLUSION: This work suggests that ELISAs based on ApxIV antibody detection in oral fluid samples could be effective in population monitoring for A. pleuropneumoniae.

Detection of African Swine Fever Virus Antibodies in Serum and Oral Fluid Specimens Using a Recombinant Protein 30 (p30) Dual Matrix Indirect ELISA.

In the absence of effective vaccine(s), control of African swine fever caused by African swine fever virus (ASFV) must be based on early, efficient, cost-effective detection and strict control and elimination strategies. For this purpose, we developed an indirect ELISA capable of detecting ASFV antibodies in either serum or oral fluid specimens. The recombinant protein used in the ELISA was selected by comparing the early serum antibody response of ASFV-infected pigs (NHV-p68 isolate) to three major recombinant polypeptides (p30, p54, p72) using a multiplex fluorescent microbead-based immunoassay (FMIA). Non-hazardous (non-infectious) antibody-positive serum for use as plate positive controls and for the calculation of sample-to-positive (S:P) ratios was produced by inoculating pigs with a replicon particle (RP) vaccine expressing the ASFV p30 gene. The optimized ELISA detected anti-p30 antibodies in serum and/or oral fluid samples from pigs inoculated with ASFV under experimental conditions beginning 8 to 12 days post inoculation. Tests on serum (n = 200) and oral fluid (n = 200) field samples from an ASFV-free population demonstrated that the assay was highly diagnostically specific. The convenience and diagnostic utility of oral fluid sampling combined with the flexibility to test either serum or oral fluid on the same platform suggests that this assay will be highly useful under the conditions for which OIE recommends ASFV antibody surveillance, i.e., in ASFV-endemic areas and for the detection of infections with ASFV isolates of low virulence.

Effect of collection material and sample processing on pig oral fluid testing results.

The effect of sampling material, sample processing, and collection order on the detection of analytes in pig oral fluid specimens was evaluated. Oral fluid samples were collected from 104 pens of commercial wean-to-finish pigs using ropes made of three different materials. Processed (centrifuged and filtered) and unprocessed oral fluid samples were tested using commercial ELISAs for porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) antibodies and total IgM, IgA, and IgG. Unprocessed samples were tested for PRRSV nucleic acid and processed samples were assayed for PRRSV neutralizing antibodies. Analysis of the data using repeated measures ANOVA and Tukey-Kramer adjusted t tests found statistically significant, non-uniform, and assay-dependent effects of all three factors. Therefore, when testing oral fluid specimens, swine health specialists, veterinarians, and diagnosticians should be aware of the potential impact of these factors on specific analytes. For monitoring health and welfare parameters, oral fluid samples should be collected using cotton-based materials and undergo minimal post-collection processing.

Kinetics of the porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) humoral immune response in swine serum and oral fluids collected from individual boars.

BACKGROUND: The object of this study was to describe and contrast the kinetics of the humoral response in serum and oral fluid specimens during acute porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) infection. The study involved three trials of 24 boars each. Boars were intramuscularly inoculated with a commercial modified live virus (MLV) vaccine (Trial 1), a Type 1 PRRSV field isolated (Trial 2), or a Type 2 PRRSV field isolate (Trial 3). Oral fluid samples were collected from individual boars on day post inoculation (DPI) -7 and 0 to 21. Serum samples were collected from all boars on DPI -7, 0, 7, 14, 21 and from 4 randomly selected boars on DPI 3, 5, 10, and 17. Thereafter, serum and oral fluid were assayed for PRRSV antibody using antibody isotype-specific ELISAs (IgM, IgA, IgG) adapted to serum or oral fluid. RESULTS: Statistically significant differences in viral replication and antibody responses were observed among the three trials in both serum and oral fluid specimens. PRRSV serum IgM, IgA, and IgG were first detected in samples collected on DPI 7, 10, and 10, respectively. Oral fluid IgM, IgA, and IgG were detected in samples collected between DPI 3 to 10, 7 to 10, and 8 to 14, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: This study enhanced our knowledge of the PRRSV humoral immune response and provided a broader foundation for the development and application of oral fluid antibody-based diagnostics.

Probability of detecting Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus infection using pen-based swine oral fluid specimens as a function of within-pen prevalence.

Pen-based oral fluid sampling has proven to be an efficient method for surveillance of infectious diseases in swine populations. To better interpret diagnostic results, the performance of oral fluid assays (antibody- and nucleic acid-based) must be established for pen-based oral fluid samples. Therefore, the objective of the current study was to determine the probability of detecting Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) infection in pen-based oral fluid samples from pens of known PRRSV prevalence. In 1 commercial swine barn, 25 pens were assigned to 1 of 5 levels of PRRSV prevalence (0%, 4%, 12%, 20%, or 36%) by placing a fixed number (0, 1, 3, 5, or 9) of PRRSV-positive pigs (14 days post PRRSV modified live virus vaccination) in each pen. Prior to placement of the vaccinated pigs, 1 oral fluid sample was collected from each pen. Thereafter, 5 oral fluid samples were collected from each pen, for a total of 150 samples. To confirm individual pig PRRSV status, serum samples from the PRRSV-negative pigs (n = 535) and the PRRSV vaccinated pigs (n = 90) were tested for PRRSV antibodies and PRRSV RNA. The 150 pen-based oral fluid samples were assayed for PRRSV antibody and PRRSV RNA at 6 laboratories. Among the 100 samples from pens containing ≥1 positive pig (≥4% prevalence) and tested at the 6 laboratories, the mean positivity was 62% for PRRSV RNA and 61% for PRRSV antibody. These results support the use of pen-based oral fluid sampling for PRRSV surveillance in commercial pig populations.

Ring test evaluation of the repeatability and reproducibility of a Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus oral fluid antibody enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay.

The precision of a Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) oral fluid antibody enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was evaluated by calculating reliability coefficients for assay repeatability (within laboratory) and assay reproducibility (between laboratories). Randomly ordered oral fluid samples of known (n = 39) and unknown (n = 224) PRRSV antibody status were tested in 12 diagnostic laboratories. Each laboratory tested the samples twice, first using an antibody ELISA kit and reagents provided to them (phase 1) and then using an ELISA kit and reagents configured in their respective laboratory (phase 2). Repeatability (within laboratory) reliability coefficients calculated using results from samples of known PRRSV antibody status ranged from 0.724 to 0.997 in phase 1 and from 0.953 to 0.998 in phase 2. Reproducibility (between laboratories) reliability coefficients were calculated for 3 conditions: case 1--samples of unknown status (n = 224); case 2--samples of known status (n = 39), and case 3--all samples (n = 263). Among the 3 cases, reliability coefficients ranged from 0.937 to 0.964 in phase 1 and from 0.922 to 0.935 in phase 2. For case 3, it was estimated that 96.67% of the total variation in phase 1 and 93.21% in phase 2 could be attributed to the oral fluid samples themselves. Overall, the PRRSV oral fluid antibody ELISA was highly repeatable and reproducible. The current study supports the routine use of this test in laboratories providing diagnostic service to pig producers.

Whole-genome association study on tissue tropism phenotypes in group A Streptococcus.

Group A Streptococcus (GAS) has a rich evolutionary history of horizontal transfer among its core genes. Yet, despite extensive genetic mixing, GAS strains have discrete ecological phenotypes. To further our understanding of the molecular basis for ecological phenotypes, comparative genomic hybridization of a set of 97 diverse strains to a GAS pangenome microarray was undertaken, and the association of accessory genes with emm genotypes that define tissue tropisms for infection was determined. Of the 22 nonprophage accessory gene regions (AGRs) identified, only 3 account for all statistically significant linkage disequilibrium among strains having the genotypic biomarkers for throat versus skin infection specialists. Networked evolution and population structure analyses of loci representing each of the AGRs reveal that most strains with the skin specialist and generalist biomarkers form discrete clusters, whereas strains with the throat specialist biomarker are highly diverse. To identify coinherited and coselected accessory genes, the strength of genetic associations was determined for all possible pairwise combinations of accessory genes among the 97 GAS strains. Accessory genes showing very strong associations provide the basis for an evolutionary model, which reveals that a major transition between many throat and skin specialist haplotypes correlates with the gain or loss of genes encoding fibronectin-binding proteins. This study employs a novel synthesis of tools to help delineate the major genetic changes associated with key adaptive shifts in an extensively recombined bacterial species.

Tissue tropisms in group A streptococcal infections.

Group A Streptococcus (GAS) is a human-specific pathogen that is highly prevalent throughout the world. The vast majority of GAS infections lead to a mild disease involving the epithelial surfaces of either the throat or skin. The concept of distinct sets of 'throat' and 'skin' strains of GAS has long been conceived. From an ecological standpoint, the epithelium of the throat and skin are important because it is where the organism is most successful in reproducing and transmitting to new hosts. This article examines key features of the epidemiology, population biology and molecular pathogenesis that underlie the tissue site preferences for infection exhibited by GAS, with an emphasis on work from our laboratory on skin tropisms. Recombinational replacement with orthologous gene forms, following interspecies transfer, appears to be an important genetic step leading up to the exploitation of new niches by GAS.

Impact of orthologous gene replacement on the circuitry governing pilus gene transcription in streptococci.

BACKGROUND: The evolutionary history of several genes of the bacterial pathogen Streptococcus pyogenes strongly suggests an origin in another species, acquired via replacement of the counterpart gene (ortholog) following a recombination event. An example of orthologous gene replacement is provided by the nra/rofA locus, which encodes a key regulator of pilus gene transcription. Of biological importance is the previous finding that the presence of the nra- and rofA-lineage alleles, which are approximately 35% divergent, correlates strongly with genetic markers for streptococcal infection at different tissue sites in the human host (skin, throat). METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: In this report, the impact of orthologous gene replacement targeting the nra/rofA locus is experimentally addressed. Replacement of the native nra-lineage allele with a rofA-lineage allele, plus their respective upstream regions, preserved the polarity of Nra effects on pilus gene transcription (i.e., activation) in the skin strain Alab49. Increased pilus gene transcription in the rofA chimera correlated with a higher rate of bacterial growth at the skin. The transcriptional regulator MsmR, which represses nra and pilus gene transcription in the Alab49 parent strain, has a slight activating effect on pilus gene expression in the rofA chimera construct. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: Data show that exchange of orthologous forms of a regulatory gene is stable and robust, and pathogenicity is preserved. Yet, new phenotypes may also be introduced by altering the circuitry within a complex transcriptional regulatory network. It is proposed that orthologous gene replacement via interspecies exchange is an important mechanism in the evolution of highly recombining bacteria such as S. pyogenes.

Role of Mga in group A streptococcal infection at the skin epithelium.

Group A streptococci (GAS) primarily cause infection at epithelial tissue sites of its human host. The role of the transcriptional regulator Mga in a humanized mouse model for superficial skin infection was investigated. Inactivation of mga in a skin strain (Alab49) led to loss of virulence. The Deltamga mutant displayed >100-fold decrease in emm (pam) transcript levels, and loss of bacterial-bound plasmin activity. A slight decrease in speB transcription, accompanied by a partial decrease in cysteine protease activity but no change in PrtF2 degradation, was also observed. Mga had no effect on transcription of nra, Nra-regulated pilus genes (cpa, fctA) or other FCT-region genes (msmR, prtF2). Combined with findings on other Alab49 mutants, data show that several essential virulence genes are regulated by Mga or Nra, but not both, implying that any coordinated response during skin infection likely operates at a higher level of transcriptional control. Mga was required for bacterial autoaggregation and biofilm-like growth on an abiotic surface; however, aggregation and biofilm formation have only partial overlap with the skin virulence phenotype. Findings on numerous phenotypes for 7 mutants constructed on the same genetic background yield a detailed, integrated model for GAS pathogenesis at the skin.

Heterogeneity in the polarity of Nra regulatory effects on streptococcal pilus gene transcription and virulence.

Transcription of several key virulence factors of Streptococcus pyogenes is under the control of Mga and Nra/RofA. In an M serotype 49 (M49) strain, Nra is a negative regulator of pilus gene transcription; also, Nra represses mga expression, leading to downregulation of the M protein surface fibril and secreted cysteine protease SpeB. In this report, the role of Nra in the virulence of an M53 classical skin strain was investigated. In contrast to the case for the M49 strain, Nra functions as a positive regulator of pilus gene transcription in the M53 strain, and inactivation of nra leads to loss of virulence in a humanized mouse model of superficial skin infection. Furthermore, Nra has no measurable effect on mga transcription in the M53 strain; this finding is further supported by a lack of detectable Nra effects on M protein- and SpeB-dependent phenotypes. Whereas MsmR is reported to activate nra and pilus gene transcription in the M49 strain, in the M53 strain it acts as a repressor of these genes. In both strains, MsmR and Nra form a feed-forward loop network motif for pilus gene transcription, but their effects have opposite signs. The findings demonstrate key strain-specific differences in the transcriptional circuitry governing virulence gene expression in S. pyogenes and its impact on pathogenesis.

Role of streptococcal T antigens in superficial skin infection.

FCT region genes of Streptococcus pyogenes encode surface proteins that include fibronectin- and collagen-binding proteins and the serological markers known as T antigens, some of which give rise to pilus-like appendages. It remains to be established whether FCT region surface proteins contribute to virulence by in vivo models of infection. In this study, a highly sensitive and ecologically relevant humanized mouse model was used to measure superficial skin infection. Three genes encoding FCT region surface proteins essential for T-serotype specificity were inactivated. Both the Deltacpa and DeltaprtF2 mutants were highly attenuated for virulence when topically applied to the skin following exponential growth but were fully virulent when delivered in stationary phase. In contrast, the DeltafctA mutant was virulent at the skin, regardless of its initial growth state. Immunoblots of cell extracts revealed anti-FctA-reactive, ladder-like polymers characteristic of streptococcal pili. In addition, FctA formed a heteropolymer with the putative collagen-binding protein Cpa. The DeltafctA mutant showed a loss in anti-Cpa-reactive polymers, whereas anti-FctA-reactive polymers were reduced in the Deltacpa mutant. The findings suggest that both FctA and Cpa are required for pilus formation, but importantly, an intact pilus is not essential for Cpa-mediated virulence. Although it is an integral part of the T-antigen complex, the fibronectin-binding protein PrtF2 is not covalently linked to the FctA- and Cpa-containing heteropolymer derived from cell extracts. The data provide direct evidence that streptococcal T antigens function as virulence factors in vivo, but they also reveal that a pilus-like structure is not essential for the most common form of streptococcal skin disease.

Population genetics and linkage analysis of loci within the FCT region of Streptococcus pyogenes.

The FCT regions of Streptococcus pyogenes strains encode a variety of cell wall-anchored surface proteins that bind the extracellular matrix of the human host and/or give rise to pilus-like appendages. Strong linkage is evident between transcription-regulatory loci positioned within the FCT and emm regions and the emm pattern genotype marker for preferred infection of the throat or skin. These findings provide a basis for the hypothesis that FCT region gene products contribute to tissue-specific infection. In an initial series of steps to address this possibility, the FCT regions of 13 strains underwent comparative sequence analysis, the gene content of the FCT region was characterized for 113 strains via PCR, and genetic linkage was assessed. A history of extensive recombination within FCT regions was evident. The emm pattern D-defined skin specialist strains were highly homogenous in their FCT region gene contents, whereas the emm pattern A-C-defined throat specialist strains displayed a greater variety of forms. Most pattern A-C strains harbored prtF1 (75%) but lacked cpa (75%). In contrast, the majority of emm pattern D strains had cpa (92%) but lacked prtF1 (79%). Models based on FCT and emm region genotypes revealed the most parsimonious pathways of evolution. Using niche-determining candidate genes to infer phylogeny, emm pattern E strains--the so-called generalists, which lack a strong tissue site preference--occupied a transition zone separating most throat specialists from skin specialists. Overall, population genetic analysis supports the possibility that the FCT region gives rise to surface proteins that are largely necessary, but not always sufficient, to confer tissue site preference for infection.

Structural diversity of streptokinase and activation of human plasminogen.

The beta domain of streptokinase is required for plasminogen activation and contains a region of sequence diversity associated with infection and disease in group A streptococci. We report that mutagenesis of this polymorphic region does not alter plasminogen activation, which suggests an alternative function for this molecular motif in streptococcal disease.

Specification of the direction of adhesive signaling by the integrin beta cytoplasmic domain.

Integrin adhesion receptors can signal in two directions: first, they can regulate cellular behaviors by modulating cellular signaling enzymes ("outside-in signaling"); second, cells can regulate the affinity of integrins ("inside-out signaling") by such pathways. Integrin beta cytoplasmic domains (tails) mediate both types of signaling, and Src family kinases (SFKs) and talin, which bind to beta tails, are important for integrin signaling. Here, we utilized "homology scanning" mutagenesis to identify beta tail mutants selectively defective in c-Src binding and found that amino acid exchanges affecting a combination of an Arg and Thr residue in the integrin beta3 tail control the binding specificity for SFKs but have no effect on talin binding. Using beta tail mutants at these residues, we found that SFK binding to integrin beta tails is dispensable for inside-out signaling but is obligatory for cell spreading, a marker of outside-in signaling. Conversely, we found that point mutations that disrupt talin binding abolish integrin activation, but they do not inhibit SFK binding to the beta3 tail or the initiation of outside-in signaling once the integrins are in a high affinity form. Thus, we show that inside-out and outside-in integrin signaling are mediated by distinct and separable interactions of the integrin beta tails. Furthermore, based on our results, it is possible to discern the relative contributions of the direction of integrin signaling on biological functions in cell culture and, ultimately, in vivo.

Src kinase activation by direct interaction with the integrin beta cytoplasmic domain.

Src tyrosine kinases transmit integrin-dependent signals pivotal for cell movement and proliferation. Here, we establish a mechanism for Src activation by integrins. c-Src is shown to bind constitutively and selectively to beta3 integrins through an interaction involving the c-Src SH3 domain and the carboxyl-terminal region of the beta3 cytoplasmic tail. Clustering of beta3 integrins in vivo activates c-Src and induces phosphorylation of Tyr-418 in the c-Src activation loop, a reaction essential for adhesion-dependent phosphorylation of Syk, a c-Src substrate. Unlike c-Src, Hck, Lyn, and c-Yes bind more generally to beta1A, beta2, and beta3 cytoplasmic tails. These results invoke a model whereby Src is primed for activation by direct interaction with an integrin beta tail, and integrin clustering stabilizes activated Src by inducing intermolecular autophosphorylation. The data provide a paradigm for integrin regulation of Src and a molecular basis for the similar functional defects of osteoclasts or platelets from mice lacking beta3 integrins or c-Src.

Natural phospholipase A(2) myotoxin inhibitor proteins from snakes, mammals and plants.

A renewed interest in the phenomenon of inter- and intra-species resistance towards the toxicity of snake venoms, coupled with the search for new strategies for treatment of snake envenomations, has prompted the discovery of proteins which neutralize the major toxic components of these venoms. Among these emerging groups of proteins are inhibitors of toxic phospholipases A2 (PLA2s), many of which exhibit a wide range of toxic effects including muscle-tissue damage, neurotoxicity, and inflammation. These proteins have been isolated from both venomous and non-venomous snakes, mammals, and most recently from medicinal plant extracts. The snake blood-derived inhibitors have been grouped into three major classes, alpha, beta, and gamma, based on common structural motifs found in other proteins with diverse physiological properties. In mammals, DM64, an anti-myotoxic protein isolated from opossum serum, belongs to the immunoglobulin super gene family and is homologous to human alpha1B-glycoprotein and DM43, a metalloproteinase inhibitor from the same organism. In plants, a short note is made of WSG, a newly described anti-toxic-PLA2 glycoprotein isolated from Withania somnifera (Ashwaganda), a medicinal plant whose aqueous extracts neutralize the PLA2 activity of the Naja naja venom. The implications of these new groups of PLA2 toxin inhibitors in the context of our current understanding of snake biology as well as in the development of novel therapeutic reagents in the treatment of snake envenomations worldwide are discussed.

Effect of preservatives on IgG aggregation, complement-activating effect and hypotensive activity of horse polyvalent antivenom used in snakebite envenomation.

Intravenous administration of antivenoms is associated with early adverse reactions in a number of cases, but the causes of this phenomenon are still unclear. The effect of preservatives (phenol and thimerosal) on IgG aggregate and dimer formation, in vitro complement-activating effect and hypotensive activity of a whole IgG horse liquid polyvalent antivenom, produced by caprylic acid fractionation, was assessed. These parameters were studied since they have been associated with the development of early adverse reactions to the administration of antivenoms and human immunoglobulins. After a three-year storage period at 4 degrees C, antivenoms with preservatives had an increased content of IgG aggregates and dimers when compared with antivenom devoid of phenol and thimerosal. These observations correlate with a slight increment in the turbidity of preservative-containing antivenoms. The three antivenoms studied (formulation: no preservatives; with phenol and thimerosal; with thimerosal alone) activated human complement in vitro, with only minor quantitative differences among them. When antivenoms were administered as a bolus intravenous injection in rats, a rapid and prominent hypotension of short duration was observed after injection of phenol-containing antivenom, whereas such an effect was absent in antivenom free of preservative and in the one containing only thimerosal. Bolus injection of saline solution with phenol resulted in a similar hypotension, indicating that the effect is due to phenol. However, when phenol-containing antivenom was diluted 1:5 with saline solution before infusion, as occurs in the clinical use of this product, no hypotension was observed. Our results stress the need to evaluate the effects of preservatives on the physicochemical and pharmacological characteristics of antivenoms.