ABSTRACT
The Trail Making Test (TMT) is used as an indicator of visual scanning, graphomotor speed, and executive function. The aim of this study was to examine the TMT relationships with several neuropsychological measures and to provide normative data in community-dwelling participants of 55 years and older. A population-based Spanish-speaking sample of 2,564 participants was used. The TMT, Symbol Digit Test, Stroop Color-Word Test, Digit Span Test, Verbal Fluency tests, and the MacQuarrie Test for Mechanical Ability tapping subtest were administered. Exploratory factor analyses and regression lineal models were used. Normative data for the TMT scores were obtained. A total of 1,923 participants (76.3%) participated, 52.4% were women, and the mean age was 66.5 years (Digit Span = 8.0). The Symbol Digit Test, MacQuarrie Test for Mechanical Ability tapping subtest, Stroop Color-Word Test, and Digit Span Test scores were associated in the performance of most TMT scores, but the contribution of each measure was different depending on the TMT score. Normative tables according to significant factors such as age, education level, and sex were created. Measures of visual scanning, graphomotor speed, and visuomotor processing speed were more related to the performance of the TMT-A score, while working memory and inhibition control were mainly associated with the TMT-B and derived TMT scores.
Subject(s)
Cross-Cultural Comparison , Neuropsychological Tests/statistics & numerical data , Psychometrics/statistics & numerical data , Trail Making Test/statistics & numerical data , Adult , Age Factors , Aged , Cardiovascular Diseases/diagnosis , Cardiovascular Diseases/psychology , Cognition Disorders/diagnosis , Cognition Disorders/psychology , Cohort Studies , Executive Function , Female , Humans , Male , Middle Aged , Reference Values , Risk Factors , SpainABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION: The rates of cognitive decline in patients with Alzheimer's disease show variations due to various factors. AIM. To determine the influence of age, education, gender, activities of daily living (ADL) and acetylcholinesterase inhibitors (IAChE) and memantine in the rhythm and rate of cognitive decline. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Retrospective study of a sample of 383 patients with Alzheimer's disease, with neuropsychological assessments over three years. Cognitive measure was used as the Cambridge Cognitive Examination (CAMCOG). Patients were grouped according to their rate of annual decline (RAD) and performed a bivariate and multivariate regression analysis using as dependent variable the difference in scores on the CAMCOG (baseline-final). RESULTS: The younger age (beta = -0.23; p < 0.001), more educated (beta = 0.26; p < 0.001) and the greater deterioration of ADL (beta = 0.24; p < 0.001) were associated with a greater decline in all patients. The drugs had a beneficial effect (beta = -0.18; p = 0.011) in the group with lower and slower decline (RAD < 5%). CONCLUSIONS: The lower age, higher education and the deterioration of ADL are associated with a greater cognitive decline. The IAChE and memantine had a beneficial effect, slowing the decline in the group of patients with lower RAD.
TITLE: Declive cognitivo en la enfermedad de Alzheimer. Seguimiento de mas de tres años de una muestra de pacientes.Introduccion. Las tasas de declive cognitivo en los pacientes con enfermedad de Alzheimer presentan variaciones debido a diversos factores. Objetivo. Determinar la influencia de la edad, escolaridad, genero, actividades de la vida diaria (AVD) e inhibidores de la acetilcolinesterasa (IAChE) y memantina en el ritmo y tasas de declive cognitivo. Pacientes y metodos. Estudio retrospectivo de una muestra de 383 pacientes con enfermedad de Alzheimer, con evaluaciones neuropsicologicas durante un periodo superior a tres años. Se utilizo como medida cognitiva el Cambridge Cognitive Examination (CAMCOG). Se agruparon los pacientes segun su tasa de declive anual (TDA) y se realizaron analisis bivariante y de regresion lineal multivariante utilizando como variable dependiente la diferencia de puntuaciones en el CAMCOG (basal-final). Resultados. La menor edad (beta = 0,23; p < 0,001), la mayor escolaridad (beta = 0,26; p < 0,001) y el mayor deterioro de las AVD (beta = 0,24; p < 0,001) estuvieron asociados a un mayor declive en todos los pacientes. Los farmacos tuvieron un efecto benefico (beta = 0,18; p = 0,011) en el grupo con menor y mas lento declive (TDA < 5%). Conclusiones. La menor edad, la mayor escolaridad y el deterioro de las AVD se relacionan con un mayor declive cognitivo. Los IAChE y la memantina tuvieron un efecto benefico, enlenteciendo el declive en el grupo de pacientes con menor TDA.
Subject(s)
Alzheimer Disease/psychology , Cognition Disorders/etiology , Activities of Daily Living , Age Factors , Aged , Aged, 80 and over , Alzheimer Disease/drug therapy , Cholinesterase Inhibitors/therapeutic use , Cognition Disorders/drug therapy , Disease Progression , Educational Status , Female , Follow-Up Studies , Humans , Male , Memantine/therapeutic use , Middle Aged , Neuropsychological Tests , Nootropic Agents/therapeutic use , Retrospective Studies , Severity of Illness IndexABSTRACT
Introducción. Las tasas de declive cognitivo en los pacientes con enfermedad de Alzheimer presentan variaciones debido a diversos factores. Objetivo. Determinar la influencia de la edad, escolaridad, género, actividades de la vida diaria (AVD) e inhibidores de la acetilcolinesterasa (IAChE) y memantina en el ritmo y tasas de declive cognitivo. Pacientes y métodos. Estudio retrospectivo de una muestra de 383 pacientes con enfermedad de Alzheimer, con evaluaciones neuropsicológicas durante un período superior a tres años. Se utilizó como medida cognitiva el Cambridge Cognitive Examination (CAMCOG). Se agruparon los pacientes según su tasa de declive anual (TDA) y se realizaron análisis bivariante y de regresión lineal multivariante utilizando como variable dependiente la diferencia de puntuaciones en el CAMCOG (basal-final). Resultados. La menor edad (β = 0,23; p < 0,001), la mayor escolaridad (β = 0,26; p < 0,001) y el mayor deterioro de las AVD (β = 0,24; p < 0,001) estuvieron asociados a un mayor declive en todos los pacientes. Los fármacos tuvieron un efecto benéfico (β = 0,18; p = 0,011) en el grupo con menor y más lento declive (TDA < 5%). Conclusiones. La menor edad, la mayor escolaridad y el deterioro de las AVD se relacionan con un mayor declive cognitivo. Los IAChE y la memantina tuvieron un efecto benéfico, enlenteciendo el declive en el grupo de pacientes con menor TDA (AU)
Introduction. The rates of cognitive decline in patients with Alzheimers disease show variations due to various factors. Aim. To determine the influence of age, education, gender, activities of daily living (ADL) and acetylcholinesterase inhibitors (IAChE) and memantine in the rhythm and rate of cognitive decline. Patients and methods. Retrospective study of a sample of 383 patients with Alzheimers disease, with neuropsychological assessments over three years. Cognitive measure was used as the Cambridge Cognitive Examination (CAMCOG). Patients were grouped according to their rate of annual decline (RAD) and performed a bivariate and multivariate regression analysis using as dependent variable the difference in scores on the CAMCOG (baseline-final). Results. The younger age (β = 0.23; p < 0.001), more educated (β = 0.26; p < 0.001) and the greater deterioration of ADL (β = 0.24; p < 0.001) were associated with a greater decline in all patients. The drugs had a beneficial effect (β = 0.18; p = 0.011) in the group with lower and slower decline (RAD < 5%). Conclusions. The lower age, higher education and the deterioration of ADL are associated with a greater cognitive decline. The IAChE and memantine had a beneficial effect, slowing the decline in the group of patients with lower RAD (AU)
Subject(s)
Humans , Alzheimer Disease/physiopathology , Cognition Disorders/physiopathology , Cholinesterase Inhibitors/pharmacokinetics , Memantine/pharmacokinetics , Disease Progression , Risk Factors , Follow-Up Studies , Retrospective StudiesABSTRACT
The Stroop Color and Word Test (SCWT) is a short test that is widely used in neuropsychological assessment to evaluate the executive aspects of attention control, information processing speed, selective attention, cognitive flexibility, and executive function in terms of the ability to inhibit a usual response in favor of an unusual response. The aim of this study was to create normative data from the SCWT adjusted for age, sex, and educational level for its clinical use in a population of 55 years of age and above. The SCWT was administered to a population-based sample of 2,151 participants aged 55 or older, and the effect of sex, age, and educational level was determined in the SCWT by means of linear regression models. Normative tables were created following the traditional method based on the stratification by relevant variables and on regression models.
Subject(s)
Color , Language , Stroop Test , Age Factors , Aged , Aged, 80 and over , Demography , Educational Status , Female , Humans , Male , Middle Aged , Reference Values , Sex Characteristics , SpainABSTRACT
OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to estimate several subtypes of depressive disorders as risk factors for dementia and Alzheimer disease (AD) specifically. METHODS: This is a population-based cohort study using a sample of 451 non-demented older people. Adjusted Cox proportional hazard models were calculated to determine the association of depression with dementia or AD development after 5 years. Baseline evaluation included the Cambridge Mental Disorders of the Elderly Examination (CAMDEX). Depressive disorders (major episode [MD] and minor depressive disorders [MDDIS]) were assessed following DSM-IV criteria and further classified according to the age at onset (early versus late onset). In turn, all late-onset depressions were grouped as with or without depression-executive dysfunction syndrome (DEDS). Dementia (and dementia subtypes) diagnoses were made using the CAMDEX. When the patients were deceased, the Retrospective Collateral Dementia Interview was used. RESULTS: Late-onset depressions (both MD and MDDIS) were associated with increased dementia (hazard ratio [HR] = 2.635; 95% CI = 1.153-6.023; and HR = 2.517; 95% CI = 1.200-5.280, respectively), and AD (HR = 6.262; 95% CI = 2.017-19.446; and HR = 4.208; 95% CI = 1.828-9.685, respectively) after adjustment by age, gender, marital status, education, cognitive impairment, executive function and stroke history. A second model revealed that only late-onset depressions with DEDS increased the risk for both dementia (late-onset MD with DEDS: HR = 6.262; 95% CI = 2.017-19.446; late-onset MDDIS with DEDS: HR = 4.208; 95% CI = 1.828-9.685) and AD (late-onset MD with DEDS: HR = 7.807; 95% CI = 1.567-38.894; late-onset MDDIS with DEDS: HR = 6.099; 95% CI = 2.123-17.524). CONCLUSIONS: Late-onset depressive episodes with DEDS are risk factors for dementia and AD development, regardless of the severity of the depression.
Subject(s)
Alzheimer Disease/epidemiology , Dementia/epidemiology , Depressive Disorder/classification , Age of Onset , Aged , Aged, 80 and over , Cohort Studies , Depressive Disorder/epidemiology , Female , Humans , Kaplan-Meier Estimate , Male , Prevalence , Proportional Hazards Models , Risk Factors , Severity of Illness Index , Spain/epidemiologyABSTRACT
Introducción. El Sistema Informatizado de Soporte al Diagnóstico de Demencia en Atención Primaria (SISDDAP) es un programa de telemedicina asincrónico que, mediante la protocolización del cribado y diagnóstico de demencia, tiene como objetivo el diagnóstico compartido de demencia entre profesionales de atención primaria (AP) y atención especializada (AE). Objetivos. Determinar la viabilidad y grado de implementación de un programa de telemedicina asincrónico y evaluar el grado de concordancia de las medidas cognitivas y funcionales entre los profesionales de dos niveles asistenciales distintos. Pacientes y métodos. Se analiza la utilización del programa SISDDAP por parte de los profesionales de cuatro áreas básicas de salud (ABS) en las que se introdujo el programa voluntariamente. Se calculó la frecuencia absoluta y relativa de utilización del programa SISDDAP y del número de variables registradas, y se calculó el coeficiente de correlación intraclase entre las puntuaciones obtenidas por los profesionales de AP y AE en los diversos instrumentos psicométricos que incluye el módulo de diagnóstico del SISDDAP (Mini-Mental State Examination, Blessed Dementia Rating Scale y Patient Health Questionnaire 9). Resultados. Las cuatro ABS que incorporaron el SISDDAP remitieron 215 (45,3%) solicitudes mediante el programa de telemedicina, y el 82,2% de estas solicitudes tenía dos o menos datos faltantes. El coeficiente de correlación intraclase fue superior a 0,70 entre todos los instrumentos evaluados. Conclusiones. El SISDDAP es un programa de telemedicina asincrónico que tiene una buena acogida entre los profesionales de AP. Tras una formación adecuada, el grado de concordancia de los instrumentos psicométricos es aceptable (AU)
Introduction. The Computerised Support System for the Diagnosis of Dementia in Primary Care (SISDDAP, in Spanish) is an asynchronous telemedicine programme that establishes protocols for the screening and diagnosis of dementia, thereby enabling primary care (PC) and specialised care (SC) professionals to reach shared diagnoses of dementia. Aims. To determine the feasibility and degree of implementation of an asynchronous telemedicine programme and to evaluate the rate of agreement between the cognitive and functional measures taken by professionals from two different levels of healthcare. Patients and methods. The study examines the use of the SISDDAP programme by professionals from four basic areas of healthcare (BAH) in which the programme was introduced on a voluntary basis. The absolute and relative frequency of use of the SISDDAP programme and the number of variables registered were calculated, together with the intra-class correlation coefficient among the scores obtained by PC and SC professionals on the different psychometric instruments, including the SISDDAP diagnostic module (Mini-Mental State Examination, Blessed Dementia Rating Scale and Patient Health Questionnaire 9). Results. The four BAH that incorporated the SISDDAP referred 215 (45.3%) applications via the telemedicine programme, and 82.2% of these applications had a maximum of two data items missing. The intra-class correlation coefficient was above 0.70 among all the instruments evaluated. Conclusions. The SISDDAP is an asynchronous telemedicine programme that is well accepted among PC professionals. After suitable training, the level of agreement among the psychometric instruments is acceptable (AU)
Subject(s)
Humans , Telemedicine/methods , Dementia/diagnosis , Remote Consultation/methods , Primary Health Care/methods , Tertiary Healthcare , Risk Factors , Mass Screening/methodsABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION: The Computerised Support System for the Diagnosis of Dementia in Primary Care (SISDDAP, in Spanish) is an asynchronous telemedicine programme that establishes protocols for the screening and diagnosis of dementia, thereby enabling primary care (PC) and specialised care (SC) professionals to reach shared diagnoses of dementia. AIMS: To determine the feasibility and degree of implementation of an asynchronous telemedicine programme and to evaluate the rate of agreement between the cognitive and functional measures taken by professionals from two different levels of healthcare. PATIENTS AND METHODS: The study examines the use of the SISDDAP programme by professionals from four basic areas of healthcare (BAH) in which the programme was introduced on a voluntary basis. The absolute and relative frequency of use of the SISDDAP programme and the number of variables registered were calculated, together with the intra-class correlation coefficient among the scores obtained by PC and SC professionals on the different psychometric instruments, including the SISDDAP diagnostic module (Mini-Mental State Examination, Blessed Dementia Rating Scale and Patient Health Questionnaire 9). RESULTS: The four BAH that incorporated the SISDDAP referred 215 (45.3%) applications via the telemedicine programme, and 82.2% of these applications had a maximum of two data items missing. The intra-class correlation coefficient was above 0.70 among all the instruments evaluated. CONCLUSIONS: The SISDDAP is an asynchronous telemedicine programme that is well accepted among PC professionals. After suitable training, the level of agreement among the psychometric instruments is acceptable.
Subject(s)
Dementia/diagnosis , Diagnosis, Computer-Assisted , Primary Health Care/methods , Telemedicine , Aged , Aged, 80 and over , Algorithms , Alzheimer Disease/diagnosis , Alzheimer Disease/psychology , Dementia/psychology , Feasibility Studies , Female , Humans , Lewy Body Disease/diagnosis , Lewy Body Disease/psychology , Male , Middle Aged , Neuropsychological Tests , Psychometrics , Software , Surveys and QuestionnairesABSTRACT
BACKGROUND: There are discrepant findings regarding which subscales of the Cambridge Cognitive Examination (CAMCOG) are able to predict cognitive decline. The study aimed to identify the baseline CAMCOG subscales that can discriminate between patients and predict cognitive decline in Alzheimer's disease (AD) and mild cognitive impairment (MCI). METHODS: This was a five-year case-control study of patients with cognitive impairment and a control group. Participants were grouped into AD (n = 121), MCI converted to dementia (MCI-Ad, n = 43), MCI-stable (MCI-St, n = 66), and controls (CTR, n = 112). Differences in the mean scores obtained by the four groups were examined. Receiver operating characteristic curves were used to compare subscale scores in the AD and MCI-Ad groups with those of controls. The influence of age, gender, schooling, and depression on baseline subscale scores was assessed. RESULTS: Of the CAMCOG subscales, Orientation and Memory (learning and recent) (OR + MEM) showed the highest discriminant capacity in the baseline analysis of the four groups. This baseline analysis indicated that OR + MEM was the best predictor of conversion to AD in the MCI-Ad group (area under the curve, AUC = 0.81), whereas the predictive capacity of the global MMSE and CAMCOG scores was poor (AUC = 0.59 and 0.53, respectively). CONCLUSIONS: In the baseline analysis, the Orientation and Memory (learning and recent) subscales showed the highest discriminant and predictive capacity as regards both cognitive decline in the AD group and conversion to AD among MCI-Ad patients. This was not affected by age, gender, schooling, or depression.
Subject(s)
Alzheimer Disease/diagnosis , Cognitive Dysfunction/diagnosis , Neuropsychological Tests , Age Factors , Aged , Alzheimer Disease/psychology , Case-Control Studies , Cognitive Dysfunction/psychology , Depression/psychology , Educational Status , Female , Follow-Up Studies , Humans , Longitudinal Studies , Male , Memory , Orientation , ROC Curve , Sex FactorsABSTRACT
AIMS: To estimate the mortality risk related to different mood disorders in a geriatric sample of subjects aged 70 years and over without dementia. METHOD: All non-demented subjects at baseline who participate on a second phase of a population-based cohort study were included. Adjusted Cox proportional hazards models were used to determine the association between depression and 5-year survival of 451 elderly people without dementia originally recruited for a representative community dementia cohort study. Baseline evaluation included the Cambridge Mental Disorders of the Elderly Examination Schedule. Depressive disorders (major and minor episode) were assessed according DSM-IV criteria and classified according the age of onset (late vs. early). The late-onset depression was classified according to the presence or absence of depression-executive dysfunction syndrome (DEDS). RESULTS: The initial cohort size was 451 subjects, among which 10.9% (n = 49) suffered a major depressive episode and 10.4% (n = 47) a minor depressive disorder. Among the total affective disorders, 77.9% (n = 74) were late-onset depressions and 29.5% (n = 28) had executive dysfunction. After 5 years, the vital status of 94% (n = 424) of the participants was known and the mortality was 18.9% (n = 80). Late-onset major depressive episode with executive dysfunction was related to mortality after adjustment by age, gender, marital status, level of education, comorbidity (or health global status) and cognitive impairment (HR = 3.70; 95% CI = 1.55-8.83). The executive dysfunction was found to be an independent mortality risk factor (HR = 2.05; 95% CI = 1.15-3.64). CONCLUSIONS: There is a statistically significant association between mortality and late-onset major depression with executive dysfunction.
Subject(s)
Depression/mortality , Depressive Disorder/mortality , Age of Onset , Aged , Aged, 80 and over , Cohort Studies , Executive Function , Female , Humans , Male , Prevalence , Proportional Hazards Models , Risk Factors , Survival AnalysisABSTRACT
OBJECTIVES: To examine the impact of incident dementia on the risk of death, taking into account other chronic illnesses potentially related to death. DESIGN: Six-year, prospective, two-phase, observational cohort study. SETTING: 8 municipalities from a rural area in Girona (Spain). PARTICIPANTS: A representative community-based cohort of 1,153 adults aged over 70 living at home at study enrolment. MEASUREMENTS: Surviving participants underwent detailed clinical evaluation and were assessed by means of the Cambridge Examination for Mental Disorders of the Elderly. Relatives of deceased participants were interviewed using the Retrospective Collateral Dementia Interview. Mortality rates and relative risk of death for subjects with a diagnosis of dementia were calculated. The Cox proportional hazards regression model was used to assess the relationship between mortality and the diagnosis of dementia. RESULTS: In this cohort, 40.0% (n = 49) of the subjects with a diagnosis of dementia died. The mortality rate specific to dementia was 1.0 per 100 person-years. Mortality risk ratios for dementia were 1.79 in men [95% confidence interval (CI) = 1.06-3.02], and 3.14 in women (95% CI = 2.04-4.85). The population death risk attributable to the diagnosis of dementia in our cohort was 11.8%. The most important mortality risks were severe dementia (hazard ratio = 5.7, 95% CI = 3.7-8.6), cancer (hazard ratio = 3.2, 95% CI = 2.2-4.5), heart disease, and an age over 85 (hazard ratio = 1.4, 95% CI = 1.1-1.9). CONCLUSION: Dementia is a major risk factor for death in advanced age, with the highest mortality rates in women. Moderate and severe dementia was associated with an increased mortality risk even after appropriate control of comorbid conditions.
Subject(s)
Dementia/diagnosis , Dementia/mortality , Age Factors , Aged , Aged, 80 and over , Cohort Studies , Female , Follow-Up Studies , Humans , Male , Population Groups , Prospective Studies , Retrospective Studies , Risk Factors , Spain/epidemiology , Survival Rate/trendsABSTRACT
BACKGROUND: Information on dementia incidence in Spanish populations is still scarce, and there is a dearth of prospective studies. OBJECTIVE: To estimate the incidence rates of dementia, Alzheimer's disease (AD) and vascular dementia (VaD) in a population cohort aged 75 and over in a rural area in Spain. METHODS: A prospective population cohort study over a 5-year period in 8 rural villages in the province of Girona. The baseline study in 1990 identified 200 prevalent cases of dementia. The dementia-free cohort included 1,260 persons aged 75 and over. This was the sample used for the incidence study. We rescreened and selectively reexamined this group in 1995 using a two-phase procedure consisting of a screening interview at home using the MMSE. Diagnoses of dementia, AD and VaD were established using the Cambridge Examination for Mental Disorders of the Elderly for surviving participants. For deceased participants, we used the Retrospective Collateral Dementia Interview to establish a diagnosis of dementia and AD according to DSM-III-R diagnostic criteria. RESULTS: Information was obtained for 91% of the subjects at risk; 122 incident cases of dementia were identified. Incidence rates per 1,000 person-years at risk were 23.2 (95% CI = 19.1-27.3) for dementia, 10.8 (95% CI = 7.8-13.7) for AD and 9.5 (95% CI = 6.7-12.1) for VaD. All dementia subtypes showed an age-dependent pattern. Females had a relative risk of 1.8 (95% CI = 1.0-3.4) to develop AD. The inclusion of deceased cases with manifestations of dementia increased the rate of dementia incidence in 7.1 cases/1,000 person-years at risk. CONCLUSION: Incidence rates were similar to those reported by other cohort studies. All dementia subtypes increased with age, but incidence rates did not increase exponentially in the oldest old. Females were at increased risk for AD. The inclusion of information about dementia symptoms from relatives of deceased participants was useful in order to avoid underestimation of the dementia incidence rates. Underestimation of the incidence rates was more important in those aged 75-84 years.
