A Case of "Cryptammonia": Disseminated Cryptococcal Infection Generating Profound Hyperammonemia in a Liver Transplant Recipient.

Mycoplasma and Ureaplasma infections have been described as a cause of hyperammonemia syndrome leading to devastating neurological injury in the post-transplant period, most commonly in lung transplant recipients. The occurrence of significant hyperammonemia caused by other urease-producing organisms remains unclear. We describe a case of disseminated cryptococcosis presenting with profound hyperammonemia in a 55-year-old orthotopic liver transplant recipient. Through a process of elimination, other potential causes for hyperammonemia were excluded revealing a probable association between hyperammonemia and disseminated cryptococcosis.

Persistence of Vascular Calcification after Reversal of Uremia.

The extent to which vascular calcification is reversible and the possible mechanisms are unclear. To address this, calcified aortas from uremic mice were transplanted orthotopically into normal mice, and the calcium content, histology, and minerals of the allografts were compared with the nontransplanted donor aorta. Calcium content decreased immediately after transplantation but remained constant thereafter, with 68% ± 12% remaining after 34 weeks. X-ray diffraction showed the presence of apatite in both donor aortas and allografts. Osteoclasts were absent in the allografts and there was no expression of the macrophage marker CD11b, the osteoclast marker tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase, or carbonic anhydrase II. The initial loss of calcium was less in heavily calcified aortas and was associated with an increase in the Ca/P ratio from 1.49 to 1.63, consistent with a loss of nonapatitic calcium. The results indicate that vascular calcification persists after reversal of uremia, because of a lack of active resorption of apatite. This failure to resorb established calcifications may contribute to the severity of vascular calcification and suggests that therapy should be aimed at prevention.

Vascular calcification is dependent on plasma levels of pyrophosphate.

Plasma levels of pyrophosphate, an endogenous inhibitor of vascular calcification, are reduced in end-stage renal disease and correlate inversely with arterial calcification. However, it is not known whether the low plasma levels are directly pathogenic or are merely a marker of reduced tissue levels. This was tested in an animal model in which aortas were transplanted between normal mice and Enpp1(-/-) mice lacking ectonucleotide pyrophosphatase phosphodiesterase, the enzyme that synthesizes extracellular pyrophosphate. Enpp1(-/-) mice had very low plasma pyrophosphate and developed aortic calcification by 2 months that was greatly accelerated with a high-phosphate diet. Aortas of Enpp1(-/-) mice showed no further calcification after transplantation into wild-type mice fed a high-phosphate diet. Aorta allografts of wild-type mice calcified in Enpp1(-/-) mice but less so than the adjacent recipient Enpp1(-/-) aorta. Donor and recipient aortic calcium contents did not differ in transplants between wild-type and Enpp1(-/-) mice, demonstrating that transplantation per se did not affect calcification. Histology revealed medial calcification with no signs of rejection. Thus, normal levels of extracellular pyrophosphate are sufficient to prevent vascular calcification, and systemic Enpp1 deficiency is sufficient to produce vascular calcification despite normal vascular extracellular pyrophosphate production. This establishes an important role for circulating extracellular pyrophosphate in preventing vascular calcification.

Role of local versus systemic vitamin D receptors in vascular calcification.

OBJECTIVE: Calcitriol and various analogs are commonly used to suppress secondary hyperparathyroidism in chronic kidney disease but may also exacerbate vascular calcification. Although this could be because of increased intestinal calcium and phosphate absorption, direct effects through vitamin D receptors (VDRs) on vascular smooth muscle have also been proposed. APPROACH AND RESULTS: The role of these receptors was investigated by examining gene regulation in rat aortas treated with calcitriol ex vivo and in vivo and by transplanting aortas from VDR-null (VDR(-/-)) mice into wild-type mice before induction of uremia and treatment with calcitriol. In cultured rat aortas, calcitriol increased the expression of mRNA for CYP24A1 but not mRNA for any bone-related or calcification-related genes. Gene expression in aortas in vivo was not altered by doses of calcitriol that promote calcification. Calcitriol markedly increased aortic calcification in uremic mice and this did not differ between VDR(-/-) aortic allografts and VDR(+/+) recipient aortas. CONCLUSIONS: Calcitriol promotes vascular calcification through a systemic action rather than through a direct vascular action.

Matrix Gla protein metabolism in vascular smooth muscle and role in uremic vascular calcification.

Matrix Gla protein (MGP) is an inhibitor of vascular calcification but its mechanism of action and pathogenic role are unclear. This was examined in cultured rat aortas and in a model of vascular calcification in rats with renal failure. Both carboxylated (GlaMGP) and uncarboxylated (GluMGP) forms were present in aorta and disappeared during culture with warfarin. MGP was also released into the medium and removed by ultracentrifugation, and similarly affected by warfarin. In a high-phosphate medium, warfarin increased aortic calcification but only in the absence of pyrophosphate, another endogenous inhibitor of vascular calcification. Although GlaMGP binds and inactivates bone morphogenic protein (BMP)-2, a proposed mediator of vascular calcification through up-regulation of the osteogenic transcription factor runx2, neither warfarin, BMP-2, nor the BMP-2 antagonist noggin altered runx2 mRNA content in aortas, and noggin did not prevent warfarin-induced calcification. Aortic content of MGP mRNA was increased 5-fold in renal failure but did not differ between calcified and noncalcified aortas. Immunoblots showed increased GlaMGP in noncalcified (5-fold) and calcified (20-fold) aortas from rats with renal failure, with similar increases in GluMGP. We conclude that rat aortic smooth muscle produces both GlaMGP and GluMGP in tissue-bound and soluble, presumably vesicular, forms. MGP inhibits calcification independent of BMP-2-driven osteogenesis and only in the absence of pyrophosphate, consistent with direct inhibition of hydroxyapatite formation. Synthesis of MGP is increased in renal failure and deficiency of GlaMGP is not a primary cause of medial calcification in this condition.

Effect of medial calcification on vascular function in uremia.

The contribution of medial calcification to vascular dysfunction in renal failure is unknown. Vascular function was measured ex vivo in control, noncalcified uremic, and calcified uremic aortas from rats with adenine-induced renal failure. Plasma urea was 16 ± 4, 93 ± 14, and 110 ± 25 mg/dl, and aortic calcium content was 27 ± 4, 29 ± 2, and 4,946 ± 1,616 nmol/mg dry wt, respectively, in the three groups. Maximal contraction by phenylephrine (PE) or KCl was reduced 53 and 63% in uremic aortas, and sensitivity to KCl but not PE was increased. Maximal relaxation to acetylcholine was impaired in uremic aortas (30 vs. 65%), and sensitivity to nitroprusside was also reduced, indicating some impairment of endothelium-independent relaxation as well. None of these parameters differed between calcified and noncalcified uremic aortas. However, aortic compliance was reduced in calcified aortas, ranging from 17 to 61% depending on the severity of calcification. We conclude that uremic vascular calcification, even when not severe, significantly reduces arterial compliance. Vascular smooth muscle and endothelial function are altered in renal failure but are not affected by medial calcification, even when severe.

Treatment with pyrophosphate inhibits uremic vascular calcification.

Pyrophosphate, which may be deficient in advanced renal failure, is a potent inhibitor of vascular calcification. To explore its use as a potential therapeutic, we injected exogenous pyrophosphate subcutaneously or intraperitoneally in normal rats and found that their plasma pyrophosphate concentrations peaked within 15 min. There was a single exponential decay with a half-life of 33 min. The kinetics were indistinguishable between the two routes of administration or in anephric rats. The effect of daily intraperitoneal pyrophosphate injections on uremic vascular calcification was then tested in rats fed a high-phosphate diet containing adenine for 28 days to induce uremia. Although the incidence of aortic calcification varied and was not altered by pyrophosphate, the calcium content of calcified aortas was significantly reduced by 70%. Studies were repeated in uremic rats given calcitriol to produce more consistent aortic calcification and treated with sodium pyrophosphate delivered intraperitoneally in a larger volume of glucose-containing solution to prolong plasma pyrophosphate levels. This maneuver significantly reduced both the incidence and amount of calcification. Quantitative histomorphometry of bone samples after double-labeling with calcein indicated that there was no effect of pyrophosphate on the rates of bone formation or mineralization. Thus, exogenous pyrophosphate can inhibit uremic vascular calcification without producing adverse effects on bone.

Recent progress in the treatment of vascular calcification.

Vascular calcification is common in patients with advanced chronic kidney disease and is associated with poorer outcomes. Although the pathophysiology is not completely understood, it is clear that it is a multifactorial process involving altered mineral metabolism, as well as changes in systemic and local factors that can promote or inhibit vascular calcification, and all of these are potential therapeutic targets. Current therapy is closely linked to strategies for preventing disordered bone and mineral metabolism in advanced kidney disease and involves lowering the circulating levels of both phosphate and calcium. The efficacy of compounds that specifically target calcification, such as bisphosphonates and thiosulfate, has been shown in animals but only in small numbers of humans, and safety remains an issue. Additional therapies, such as pyrophosphate, vitamin K, and lowering of pH, are supported by animal studies, but are yet to be investigated clinically. As the mineral composition of vascular calcifications is the same as in bone, potential effects on bone must be addressed with any therapy for vascular calcification.

Effect of bisphosphonates on vascular calcification and bone metabolism in experimental renal failure.

Although it is known that bisphosphonates prevent medial vascular calcification in vivo, their mechanism of action remains unknown and, in particular, whether they act directly on the blood vessels or indirectly through inhibition of bone resorption. To determine this, we studied the effects of two bisphosphonates on calcification of rat aortas in vitro and on in vivo aortic calcification and bone metabolism in rats with renal failure. We produced vascular calcification in rats with adenine-induced renal failure fed a high-phosphate diet. Daily treatment with either etidronate or pamidronate prevented aortic calcification, with the latter being 100-fold more potent. Both aortic calcification and bone formation were reduced in parallel; however, bone resorption was not significantly affected. In all uremic rats, aortic calcium content correlated with bone formation but not with bone resorption. Bisphosphonates also inhibited calcification of rat aortas in culture and arrested further calcification of precalcified vessels but did not reverse their calcification. Expression of osteogenic factors or calcification inhibitors was not altered by etidronate in vitro. Hence, these studies show that bisphosphonates can directly inhibit uremic vascular calcification independent of bone resorption. The correlation between inhibition of aortic calcification and bone mineralization is consistent with a common mechanism such as the prevention of hydroxyapatite formation and suggests that bisphosphonates may not be able to prevent vascular calcification without inhibiting bone formation in uremic rats.

Reduced plasma pyrophosphate levels in hemodialysis patients.

Pyrophosphate (PPi) is a known inhibitor of hydroxyapatite formation and has been shown to inhibit medial vascular calcification in vitamin D-toxic rats. It was demonstrated recently that endogenous production of PPi prevents calcification of rat aorta that are cultured in high concentrations of calcium and phosphate. For determining whether PPi metabolism is altered in hemodialysis patients, plasma levels and dialytic clearance of PPi were measured in stable hemodialysis patients. Predialysis plasma [PPi] was 2.26 +/- 0.19 microM in 38 clinically stable hemodialysis patients compared with 3.26 +/- 0.17 in 36 normal subjects (P < 0.01). Approximately 30% of plasma PPi was protein bound, and this was not altered in dialysis patients. There was a weak inverse correlation with age in normal individuals but not in dialysis patients. Plasma [PPi] in dialysis patients was correlated with plasma [PO4(3-)] (r = 0.56) but not with [Ca2+], parathyroid hormone, or the dose of dialysis, and levels did not vary between interdialytic periods of 2 and 3 d. Plasma [PPi] decreased 32 +/- 5% after standard hemodialysis in 17 patients. In vitro clearance of PPi by a 2.1-m2 cellulose acetate dialyzer was 36%, and the mean PPi removal in five patients was 43 +/- 5 micromol, consistent with a similar in vivo clearance. Cleared PPi was greater than the plasma pool but less than the estimated extracellular fluid pool. Erythrocyte PPi content decreased 24 +/- 4%, indicating that intracellular PPi is removed as well. It is concluded that plasma [PPi] is reduced in hemodialysis patients and that PPi is cleared by dialysis. Plasma levels in some patients were below those that have previously been shown to prevent calcification of vessels in culture, suggesting that altered PPi metabolism could contribute to vascular calcification in hemodialysis patients.

Phosphate-induced vascular calcification: role of pyrophosphate and osteopontin.

Hyperphosphatemia is thought to underlie medial vascular calcification in advanced renal failure, but calcification can occur in other conditions in the absence of hyperphosphatemia, indicating that additional factors are important. To identify these factors, a model of medial calcification in rat aorta in vitro was developed. Aortic rings from rats were incubated in serum-free medium for 9 d, and calcification was measured as incorporation of (45)Ca and confirmed by histology and x-ray diffraction. No calcification occurred in normal vessels despite elevated free Ca(2+) and PO(4)(3-) concentrations of 1.8 mM and 3.8 mM, respectively, but mechanical injury resulted in extensive calcification in the media. Co-incubation studies revealed that normal aortas produced a soluble inhibitor of calcification in injured vessels that was destroyed by alkaline phosphatase. Culture of normal aortas with alkaline phosphatase resulted in calcification of the elastic lamina identified as hydroxyapatite by x-ray diffraction. This effect of alkaline phosphatase was not due to dephosphorylation of osteopontin (OPN), and calcification was not increased in aortas from OPN-deficient mice. The inhibitor was identified as pyrophosphate on the basis of the calcification induced in aortas cultured with inorganic pyrophosphatase, the inhibition of calcification in injured aortas by pyrophosphate, and the production of inhibitory levels of pyrophosphate by normal aortas. No calcification occurred under any conditions at a normal PO(4)(3-) concentration. It is concluded that elevated concentrations of Ca(2+) and PO(4)(3-) are not sufficient for medial vascular calcification because of inhibition by pyrophosphate. Alkaline phosphatase can promote calcification by hydrolyzing pyrophosphate, but OPN is not an endogenous inhibitor of calcification in rat aorta.