Evaluation of a conducting elastomeric composite material for intramuscular electrode application.

Electrical stimulation of the muscle has been proven efficacious in preventing atrophy and/or reanimating paralyzed muscles. Intramuscular electrodes made from metals have significantly higher Young's Moduli than the muscle tissues, which has the potential to cause chronic inflammation and decrease device performance. Here, we present an intramuscular electrode made from an elastomeric conducting polymer composite consisting of PEDOT-PEG copolymer, silicone and carbon nanotubes (CNT) with fluorosilicone insulation. The electrode wire has a Young's modulus of 804 (±99) kPa, which better mimics the muscle tissue modulus than conventional stainless steel (SS) electrodes. Additionally, the non-metallic composition enables metal-artifact free CT and MR imaging. These soft wire (SW) electrodes present comparable electrical impedance to SS electrodes of similar geometric surface area, activate muscle at a lower threshold, and maintain stable electrical properties in vivo up to 4 weeks. Histologically, the SW electrodes elicited significantly less fibrotic encapsulation and less IBA-1 positive macrophage accumulation than the SS electrodes at one and three months. Further phenotyping the macrophages with the iNOS (pro-inflammatory) and ARG-1 (pro-healing) markers revealed significantly less presence of pro-inflammatory macrophage around SW implants at one month. By three months, there was a significant increase in pro-healing macrophages (ARG-1) around the SW implants but not around the SS implants. Furthermore, a larger number of AchR clusters closer to SW implants were found at both time points compared to SS implants. These results suggest that a softer implant encourages a more intimate and healthier electrode-tissue interface. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Intramuscular electrodes made from metals have significantly higher Young's Moduli than the muscle tissues, which has the potential to cause chronic inflammation and decrease device performance. Here, we present an intramuscular electrode made from an elastomeric conducting polymer composite consisting of PEDOT-PEG copolymer, silicone and carbon nanotubes with fluorosilicone insulation. This elastomeric composite results in an electrode wire with a Young's modulus mimicking that of the muscle tissue, which elicits significantly less foreign body response compared to stainless steel wires. The lack of metal in this composite also enables metal-artifact free MRI and CT imaging.

Soft Conducting Elastomer for Peripheral Nerve Interface.

State-of-the-art intraneural electrodes made from silicon or polyimide substrates have shown promise in selectively modulating efferent and afferent activity in the peripheral nervous system. However, when chronically implanted, these devices trigger a multiphase foreign body response ending in device encapsulation. The presence of encapsulation increases the distance between the electrode and the excitable tissue, which not only reduces the recordable signal amplitude but also requires increased current to activate nearby axons. Herein, this study reports a novel conducting polymer based intraneural electrode which has Young's moduli similar to that of nerve tissue. The study first describes material optimization of the soft wire conductive matrix and evaluates their mechanical and electrochemical properties. Second, the study demonstrates 3T3 cell survival when cultured with media eluted from the soft wires. Third, the study presents acute in vivo functionality for stimulation of peripheral nerves to evoke force and compound muscle action potential in a rat model. Furthermore, comprehensive histological analyses show that soft wires elicit significantly less scar tissue encapsulation, less changes to axon size, density and morphology, and reduced macrophage activation compared to polyimide implants in the sciatic nerves at 1 month postimplantation.

Conserving biodiversity efficiently: what to do, where, and when.

Conservation priority-setting schemes have not yet combined geographic priorities with a framework that can guide the allocation of funds among alternate conservation actions that address specific threats. We develop such a framework, and apply it to 17 of the world's 39 Mediterranean ecoregions. This framework offers an improvement over approaches that only focus on land purchase or species richness and do not account for threats. We discover that one could protect many more plant and vertebrate species by investing in a sequence of conservation actions targeted towards specific threats, such as invasive species control, land acquisition, and off-reserve management, than by relying solely on acquiring land for protected areas. Applying this new framework will ensure investment in actions that provide the most cost-effective outcomes for biodiversity conservation. This will help to minimise the misallocation of scarce conservation resources.