The Relativistic Proton Spectrometer: A Review of Sensor Performance, Applications, and Science.

The Relativistic Proton Spectrometer (RPS) on the Van Allen Probes spacecraft was a particle spectrometer designed to measure the flux, angular distribution, and energy spectrum of protons from ∼ 60 MeV to ∼ 2000 MeV . RPS provided new information about the inner Van Allen belt: a nearby region of space that had been relatively unexplored because of the difficulties of making charged particle measurements there and the associated hazards to satellite operations. We met the primary mission objective of providing accurate data for the AP9 radiation specification model at the high energies where there were little to no data prior to the Van Allen Probes mission. Along the way, we were able to demonstrate the long-term stability of parts of the Inner Belt by comparison with short-lived space science missions that operated decades prior to Van Allen Probes. The most significant surprises were the agreement between RPS and some of those historical measurements and the discovery of a trapped population of > 30 MeV leptons at the outer edge of the inner belt. This end-of-mission paper summarizes the instrument performance, calibration, data products, and specific science and engineering results, and includes suggestions for future investigations of intense radiation fields like those found within the inner belt.

The Magnetic Electron Ion Spectrometer: A Review of On-Orbit Sensor Performance, Data, Operations, and Science.

Measurements from NASA's Van Allen Probes have transformed our understanding of the dynamics of Earth's geomagnetically-trapped, charged particle radiation. The Van Allen Probes were equipped with the Magnetic Electron Ion Spectrometers (MagEIS) that measured energetic and relativistic electrons, along with energetic ions, in the radiation belts. Accurate and routine measurement of these particles was of fundamental importance towards achieving the scientific goals of the mission. We provide a comprehensive review of the MagEIS suite's on-orbit performance, operation, and data products, along with a summary of scientific results. The purpose of this review is to serve as a complement to the MagEIS instrument paper, which was largely completed before flight and thus focused on pre-flight design and performance characteristics. As is the case with all space-borne instrumentation, the anticipated sensor performance was found to be different once on orbit. Our intention is to provide sufficient detail on the MagEIS instruments so that future generations of researchers can understand the subtleties of the sensors, profit from these unique measurements, and continue to unlock the mysteries of the near-Earth space radiation environment. SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s11214-021-00855-2.

A Revised Look at Relativistic Electrons in the Earth's Inner Radiation Zone and Slot Region.

We describe a new, more accurate procedure for estimating and removing inner zone background contamination from Van Allen Probes Magnetic Electron Ion Spectrometer (MagEIS) radiation belt measurements. This new procedure is based on the underlying assumption that the primary source of background contamination in the electron measurements at L shells less than three, energetic inner belt protons, is relatively stable. Since a magnetic spectrometer can readily distinguish between foreground electrons and background signals, we are able to exploit the proton stability to construct a model of the background contamination in each MagEIS detector by only considering times when the measurements are known to be background dominated. We demonstrate, for relativistic electron measurements in the inner zone, that the new technique is a significant improvement upon the routine background corrections that are used in the standard MagEIS data processing, which can "overcorrect" and therefore remove real (but small) electron fluxes. As an example, we show that the previously reported 1-MeV injection into the inner zone that occurred in June of 2015 was distributed more broadly in L and persisted in the inner zone longer than suggested by previous estimates. Such differences can have important implications for both scientific studies and spacecraft engineering applications that make use of MagEIS electron data in the inner zone at relativistic energies. We compare these new results with prior work and present more recent observations that also show a 1-MeV electron injection into the inner zone following the September 2017 interplanetary shock passage.

Effects of forage type, body condition and single-nucleotide polymorphisms in the bovine cytochrome P450 regulatory region on cow productivity.

Single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) in the coding sequence of cytochrome p450 (CYP3A28) have been associated with milk yield and composition, and calving traits in cows. In this study, we aimed to determine whether (i) the CYP3A28 regulatory region was polymorphic and (ii) SNP genotype, forage type, body condition and their interactions affect cow productivity. Primers for CYP3A28 promoter were designed to amplify a 483-bp segment by PCR. Amplicon sequences revealed seven SNP (T-318C, T-113A, C-189T, T-78G, A6G, G17A and T21C) in Brahman (38 cows), Brahman x Angus reciprocal crosses (47 cows) and crossbreds (98 cows). Angus cows (n = 41) appeared to be fixed at those SNP locations. Genotype and forage {endophyte-infected tall fescue [KY+; Lolium arundinaceum (Schreb.) S. J. Darbyshire] vs. bermudagrass [Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers.]} effects on lifetime (8-years) calving rate, and calf weaning weights and heights were determined in Herd 1 (126 cows); genotype and BC (low vs. moderate) effects on calving date and calving percent were determined in Herd 2 (98 cows). Four SNP (T-318C, T-113A, A06G and T21C) appeared to be related to cattle productivity, CC cows at T-318C having a lower (p < 0.05) lifetime calving rate than TC or TT cows (65%, 85% and 81% respectively). Cows that grazed KY+ and were TT at T-318C produced calves that tended (p < 0.07) to weigh less than their contemporaries. Moreover, calves of TT cows were shorter (p < 0.05) at weaning than calves of CC or TC cows. In Herd 2, moderate-BC cows that were TT or AA at T-318C, T-113A, T-78G, A6G and T21C had greater (p < 0.05) calving rates (74-80%) than heterozygous cows (46-60%), and low-BC cows that were AA at G17A calved at least 6 days earlier (p < 0.05) than heterozygous cows. Our findings suggest that SNP in the CYP3A28 regulatory region of Brahman-influenced cows are associated with cattle productivity.

Performance by spring and fall-calving cows grazing with full, limited, or no access to toxic Neotyphodium coenophialum-infected tall fescue.

Replacing toxic, wild-type Neotyphodium coenophialum-infected tall fescue (E+) with nontoxic, N. coenophialum-infected tall fescue (NE+) has improved cow performance, but producer acceptance of NE+ has been slow. The objective was to compare performance by spring- and fall-calving cows grazing either E+ or NE+ at different percentages of the total pasture area. Gelbvieh×Angus crossbred cows (n=178) were stratified by BW and age within calving season and allocated randomly to 1 of 14 groups representing 5 treatments for a 3-yr study: i) Fall-calving on 100% E+ (F100); ii) Spring-calving on 100% E+ (S100); iii) Fall-calving on 75% E+ and 25% NE+ (F75); iv) Spring-calving on 75% E+ and 25% NE+ (S75); and v) Spring-calving on 100% NE+ (SNE100). Groups allocated to F75 and S75 grazed E+ until approximately 28 d before breeding and weaning, then were then moved to their respective NE+ pasture area for 4 to 6 wk; those allocated to F100, S100, and SNE100 grazed their pastures throughout the entire year. Samples of tall fescue were gathered from specific cells within each pasture at the time cows were moved into that particular cell (∼1 sample/mo). Blood samples were collected from the cows at the start and end of the breeding season. Stocking rate for each treatment was 1 cow/ha. Forage IVDMD, CP, and total ergot alkaloid concentrations were affected (P<0.05) by the treatment×sampling date interaction. Hay offered, cow BW, and BCS at breeding, end of breeding, and at weaning were greater (P<0.05) from fall-calving vs. spring-calving. Cow BW at weaning was greater (P<0.05) from F75 and S75 vs. F100 and S100. The calving season×NE+ % interaction affected (P<0.05) calving rates. Preweaning calf BW gain, actual and adjusted weaning BW, ADG, sale price, and calf value at weaning were greater (P<0.05) from fall-calving vs. spring-calving and from SNE100 vs. S75 except for sale price which was greater (P<0.05) from S75 vs. SNE100. Cow concentrations of serum prolactin at breeding and serum NEFA at the end of breeding were affected (P<0.05) by the calving season×NE+ % interaction. Serum Zn and Cu concentrations from cows were affected (P<0.05) by calving season. A fall-calving season may be more desirable for cows grazing E+, resulting in greater calving rates, cow performance, and calf BW at weaning, whereas limited access to NE+ may increase calving rates, serum prolactin, and NEFA concentrations during certain times in the production cycle, particularly in spring-calving cows.

Effects of bovine cytochrome P450 single-nucleotide polymorphism, forage type and body condition on production traits in cattle.

Relating single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) to cows with acceptable productivity could benefit cattle breeders in areas where tall fescue is the predominant forage. This study aimed to (i) identify SNPs in bovine cytochrome P450 3A28 (CYP3A28) and (ii) determine the associations between SNP genotype, forage and cow body condition (BC). Genotype (CC, CG or GG) and forage [Kentucky-31 wild-type endophyte-infected tall fescue (KY+) vs. bermudagrass] effects on milk volume and quality were determined in Herd 1 cows (123 cows); in Herd 2 (99 cows), genotype and BC (low vs. moderate) effects on ovarian follicle size, calving date and calving per cent were determined; and in Herd 3 (114 cows), effects of genotype and fescue cultivar [KY+ vs. non-toxic endophyte-infected tall fescue (HiMag4)] were related to calving per cent, calving date and weaning weights of both cow and her calf. A cytosine (C) to guanine (G) transversion at base 994 (C994G) in CYP3A28 was identified. There was a genotype × forage type interaction (p < 0.05) on milk protein in Herd 1 cows; CC cows grazing bermudagrass had greater milk protein percentage in relation to other cows in the herd. In Herd 2, BC and genotype × BC tended (p < 0.10) to influence follicle size and Julian calving date respectively. Diameter of the largest follicle tended to be larger in moderate BC than in low-BC cows; whereas, CC and CG cows in moderate BC and homozygous (CC and GG) cows in low BC tended to calve 14 days earlier in relation to CG cows in low BC. In Herd 3, there was a genotype × forage type interaction (p < 0.05) on calving per cent, Julian calving date and calf weaning weight. In this study, genetic alterations (G allele at C994G) coupled with nutritional factors (low BC and toxic tall fescue) resulted in overall lower productivity in cows.

Board-invited review: St. Anthony's Fire in livestock: causes, mechanisms, and potential solutions.

After a brief history of ergot alkaloids and ergotism, this review focuses on the metabolism and mechanisms of action of the ergot alkaloids. The authors provide models of how these alkaloids afflict grazing livestock under complex animal-plant/endophyte-environmental interactions. Alkaloid chemistry is presented to orient the reader to the structure-function relationships that are known to exist. Where appropriate, the medical literature is used to aid interpretation of livestock research and to provide insight into potential modes of action and alkaloid metabolism where these are not known for livestock. In closing the paper, we discuss management of ergot alkaloid intoxication in livestock and future research needs for this field of study.

Effects of body condition on measures of intramuscular and rump fat, endocrine factors, and calving rate of beef cows grazing common bermudagrass or endophyte-infected tall fescue.

Multiparous beef cows were managed to achieve marginal (BCS = 4.7 ± 0.07; n = 106) or good (BCS = 6.6 ± 0.06; n = 121) body condition (BC) to determine the influence of forage environment on BW and BC changes, intramuscular fat percentage (IMF), rump fat (RF), and serum hormones during 2 yr. Cows within each BC were randomly assigned to graze either common bermudagrass (CB; n = 3 pastures/yr) or toxic endophyte-infected tall fescue (EI; n = 3 pastures/yr) during a 60-d breeding season. Blood samples were collected at d 0, 30, and 60 of the breeding season, and serum concentrations of prolactin (PRL), IGF-I, and cortisol (CORT) were quantified; PRL and progesterone (P(4)) also were quantified 10 d before the breeding season (d -10). Body weight and BCS were recorded during the breeding season (d 0, 30, and 60). Cow IMF and RF were measured via ultrasonography at the start and end of the breeding season. Cows with increased (>1 ng/mL) P(4) at the beginning of the breeding season (cyclic) had greater (P < 0.02) concentrations of PRL on d 30 and 60 compared with anestrous cows. A forage environment × BC interaction tended (P = 0.07) to influence PRL. Cows grazing CB independent of BC had increased PRL compared with cows grazing EI. Prolactin was decreased in good-BC cows grazing EI compared with cows grazing CB, and cows in marginal BC grazing EI had the least concentrations of PRL. Concentrations of IGF-I were similar (P > 0.10) among good- and marginal-BC cows grazing CB, as well as good-BC cows grazing EI; however, marginal-BC cows grazing EI had reduced (P < 0.04) concentrations of IGF-I compared with all other groups. Cows in marginal BC grazing CB gained (P = 0.02) the most BW during the breeding season, whereas good-BC cows grazing EI gained the least amount of BW. Marginal-BC cows grazing CB tended (P = 0.06) to increase BC during the breeding season, whereas good-BC cows grazing either CB or EI lost BC. Rump fat tended (P = 0.07) to increase during the breeding season in marginal-BC cows compared with cows in good BC. Calving rates were similar (P > 0.10) among good- (82%) and marginal- (84%) BC cows grazing CB, and good-BC cows grazing EI (79%); however, marginal-BC cows grazing EI had a reduced (P = 0.04) calving rate (61%). Cattle grazing EI during the breeding season lost BC. That reduction in BC may be communicated to the pituitary via hormones that include IGF-I or PRL or both, resulting in decreased calving rates.

Interaction of breed type and endophyte-infected tall fescue on milk production and quality in beef cattle.

Decreased milk production of beef cattle grazing endophyte-infected (EI) tall fescue (TF), an important cool season grass in the southeastern United States, can affect calf growth. The objective was to determine whether a thermal or heat-tolerant Bos taurus breed of cattle, Romosinuano (RO), would tolerate EI TF toxins relative to Angus (AN) cattle. Milk production and quality were examined on AN and RO cows grazing endophyte-free (EF; variety K-31; n = 36) or EI TF (variety K-31; n = 37) along with growth of their Charolais-sired calves in 2007 and 2008 in west central Arkansas. Cows calved between early February and late March (spring). Milk yield and quality, BW, rectal temperature, and serum prolactin were determined at 57.1 +/- 2.6 d postpartum and every 28 d thereafter between April and August. Milk yield was greater in AN compared with RO cows (P < 0.001), but not influenced by forage type (P > 0.88). Percent milk fat was greater in cows grazing EF TF in April, but greater for cows grazing EI TF in July (forage x month, P < 0.001). Percent milk fat was greater for RO than AN cows (P < 0.001). Percent milk protein (P < 0.001) was greater and somatic cell counts (log-transformed; P < 0.001) were less in RO than AN cows. Milk lactose was greater for RO compared with AN cows in June through August (breed x month, P = 0.004). Adjusted weaning BW of calves was similar between EF and EI TF in 2007, but greater for calves from EF than EI TF in 2008 (forage x year, P = 0.03). Rectal temperature was similar between RO cows grazing EF and EI TF, but greater in AN cows grazing EI compared with EF TF in most months (forage x breed x month x year, P < 0.001). Serum prolactin was reduced in both breeds of cows grazing EI TF between April and July of both years and greatest in RO cows grazing EF TF (breed, P < 0.001; forage x month, P < 0.001). These data suggest that RO cows were more thermal-tolerant, but still susceptible to toxins in EI TF as shown by a reduction in serum concentrations of prolactin. However, milk production was not influenced by EI TF as previously observed, but milk fat percent was decreased in early lactation in this group of cows. Milk yield and quality were different between AN and RO cows during the period of lactation observed.

Influence of body condition and forage type on prevalence of Escherichia coli O157:H7 and Salmonella in grazing beef cows.

AIM: To determine the influence of body condition (BC) and forage type on the prevalence of faecal shedding of Escherichia coli O157:H7 and Salmonella from beef cows. METHODS AND RESULTS: Thin or moderately conditioned cows (n = 115) were randomly assigned to graze either common bermudagrass (n = 3 pastures) or toxic endophyte-infected tall fescue (n = 3 pastures) for 62 days. Faecal samples were collected on day 0, 30 and 62. Overall percentage of faecal samples positive for E. coli O157:H7 was 2.6% and 2.0% for Salmonella. Percentage of cows positive for both E. coli O157:H7 and Salmonella on at least one occasion was 6.1%. BC, forage type or the interaction did not influence the prevalence of E. coli O157:H7 or Salmonella in the faeces of cows. CONCLUSIONS: BC at initiation of the grazing period or loss of BC in moderate conditioned cows during the grazing period did not influence faecal shedding of E. coli O157:H7 or Salmonella. Consumption of either forage type did not influence faecal shedding of either E. coli O157:H7 or Salmonella in beef cows of thin or moderate BC. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: Change in BC that typically occurs during the normal production cycle in grazing cows did not influence faecal shedding of pathogenic bacteria regardless of forage type.

Hemodynamics are altered in the caudal artery of beef heifers fed different ergot alkaloid concentrations.

Doppler ultrasonography was used to compare blood flow characteristics in the caudal artery of heifers fed diets with endophyte (Neotyphodium coenophialum) noninfected (E-, 0 microg of ergovaline/g of DM), a 1:1 mixture of endophyte-infected and E- (E+E-; 0.39 microg of ergovaline/g of DM), or endophyte-infected (E+, 0.79 microg of ergovaline/g of DM) tall fescue (Lolium arundinaceum) seed. Eighteen crossbred (Angus x Brangus) heifers [345 +/- 19 kg (SD)] were assigned to individual pens and fed chopped alfalfa hay plus a concentrate that contained E- tall fescue seed for 7 d during an adjustment period. A 9-d experimental period followed with feeding treatments of chopped alfalfa hay plus a concentrate with E+, E-, or E+E- seed being assigned randomly to pens. Doppler ultrasound measurements (caudal artery luminal area, peak systolic velocity, end diastolic velocity, mean velocity, heart rate, and flow rate) and serum prolactin were monitored during the adjustment (3 baseline measures) and during the experimental period (7 measures). Statistical analyses compared proportionate differences between baseline and responses at 3, 27, 51, 75, 171, and 195 h from initial feeding of the experimental diets. Serum prolactin concentrations for E+ and E+E- diets were less (P < 0.001) than baseline concentrations beginning at 27 and 51 h, respectively, from initial feeding of the diets. Although baseline measures were taken when ambient temperatures were likely below thermoneutrality, caudal artery luminal cross-sectional area in E+ heifers had declined (P = 0.004) from baseline by 27 h and remained less (P < 0.02) until 195 h, and caudal artery luminal area declined (P = 0.004) in E+E- heifers from baseline by 51 h and remained less (P < 0.07) until 171 h. Blood flow rate was slower than the baseline rate at 51 h for E+ (P = 0.058) and E+E- (P = 0.02 heifers, but blood flow remained slower in E+E- heifers for 48 h, whereas it remained slower in E+ heifers for 96 h. Adjustments in artery luminal area and blood rate with the 3 diets appeared to parallel the increases in ambient temperature. Heifers fed a diet containing a larger amount of ergot alkaloids had less of a response to ambient temperature than heifers consuming the diet with less or no ergot alkaloids.

Fate of Escherichia coli O157:H7 and Salmonella from contaminated manure slurry applied to soil surrounding tall fescue.

AIM: To investigate the potential transfer of Escherichia coli O157:H7 and Salmonella from contaminated manure slurry into the tissue of tall fescue plants. METHODS AND RESULTS: Tall fescue plants (n = 50) were fertilized with a manure slurry inoculated with E. coli O157:H7 and Salmonella. Soil was collected and tall fescue plants (n = 10 per day) harvested on day 1, 2, 4, 8, and 14 after manure slurry fertilization. Soil samples were positive for E. coli O157:H7 on all days and on day 1, 2, 8, and 14 for Salmonella. None of the plant tissue samples were positive for E. coli O157:H7 on day 1 or 2; however, 20%, 30% and 40% of plant tissue samples were positive for E. coli O157:H7 on day 4, 8, and 14, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: It may be possible that E. coli O157:H7 can become transmitted and internalized into tall fescue plant tissue within 4 days after exposure to an E. coli O157:H7-contaminated manure slurry. Salmonella did not appear to be transferred to tall fescue plant tissue. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: Faeces contaminated with E. coli O157:11H7 may be one means by which grazing ruminants spread bacterial pathogens to additional animals.

Influence of toxic endophyte-infected fescue on sperm characteristics and endocrine factors of yearling Brahman-influenced bulls.

Sixteen (mean age = 1.1 +/- 0.1 yr; mean BW = 478 +/- 34 kg) Brahman-influenced bulls were used to determine the influence of fescue type on sperm characteristics and serum concentrations of prolactin, cortisol, and testosterone. Bulls were blocked by BW, scrotal circumference (SC), and pregrazing sperm characteristics and randomly assigned to graze toxic endophyte-infected (EI; 4 bulls/pasture; 2 pastures) or novel endophyte-infected (NE; 4 bulls/pasture; 2 pastures) tall fescue for 121 d. Semen was collected by electroejaculation, and SC was measured and blood samples collected monthly. Sperm were evaluated for motility and morphology with an integrated visual optical system. Overall mean concentration of prolactin was decreased more (P < 0.01) in EI bulls than NE bulls from May to August. Scrotal circumference was not affected by fescue type (P = 0.58); overall SC averaged 36.7 +/- 2.3 cm. Percentage of live sperm was not different (P = 0.24) between NE bulls (80%) than EI bulls (67%) in July and August. Bulls grazing NE fescue had more (P < 0.06) motile sperm than EI bulls in July and August. Percentages of progressive (57 vs. 38%, NE and EI, respectively; P < 0.06) and rapid (67 vs. 46%, NE and EI, respectively; P = 0.04) sperm were greater from bulls grazing NE than EI bulls in July and August. Average velocity of the smoothed sperm path and progressive velocity in a straight line from the beginning to the end of the sperm track were slower (P < 0.09) in EI bulls than NE bulls and were slower (P = 0.04) in August compared with July. Mean width of head oscillation as the sperm swims was less (P < 0.06) in August than July. Concentrations of cortisol and testosterone were not (P > 0.10) influenced by fescue type. Semen from bulls grazing EI had reduced motility and morphology than bulls grazing NE. Detrimental effects of toxic fescue may not be mediated by cortisol, testosterone, or both. Semen quality of bulls grazing toxic EI tall fescue was decreased with increased maximum ambient temperatures.

Effects of the ergot alkaloids dihydroergotamine, ergonovine, and ergotamine on growth of Escherichia coli O157:H7 in vitro.

A series of experiments were conducted to evaluate the effects of ergot alkaloids (dihydroergotamine, ergonovine, and ergotamine) on E. coli O157:H7 in both pure and mixed ruminal fluid culture. Alkaloids were added to solutions of E. coli O157:H7 strains 933 (pure and ruminal cultures) and 6058 (ruminal culture only), and growth rates and colony-forming units (CFU) of E. coli O157:H7 were measured. Two mixtures of all three alkaloids at either 2 or 500 microM for each alkaloid decreased (p < 0.001) the growth rate of E. coli O157:H7 in pure culture compared to the individual alkaloids. Dihydroergotamine tended (p = 0.07) to reduce growth rate of E. coli O157:H7 in pure culture compared with ergonovine or ergotamine alone. Increased concentrations of dihydroergotamine and ergotamine decreased (p < 0.003) growth rate of E. coli O157:H7 but increasing concentrations of ergonovine did not influence (p > 0.10) E. coli O157:H7 growth rate. Similar to results in pure culture, a mixture of all three alkaloids at various concentrations for each alkaloid decreased (p < 0.001) the CFU of E. coli O157:H7 strain 6058 in mixed ruminal culture compared to the individual ergot alkaloids. Dihydroergotamine decreased (p = 0.04) CFU of E. coli O157:H7 strain 6058 when compared to ergonovine but CFU were similar (p > 0.10) between dihydroergotamine and ergotamine. Ruminal and (or) intestinal populations of E. coli O157:H7 may be influenced in livestock consuming endophyte-infected tall fescue, and these alterations could be due to the presence of ergot alkaloids in fescue plants.

Effects of fescue type and sampling date on the nitrogen disappearance kinetics of autumn-stockpiled tall fescue.

Two tall fescue [Lolium arundinaceum (Schreb.) Darbysh] forages, one an experimental host plant/endophyte association containing a novel endophyte that produces low or nil concentrations of ergot alkaloids (HM4) and the other a typical association of Kentucky 31 tall fescue and the wild-type endophyte (Neotyphodium coenophialum; E+), were autumn-stockpiled following late-summer clipping and fertilization with 56 kg/ha of N to assess N partitioning and ruminal disappearance kinetics of N for these autumn-stockpiled tall fescue forages. Beginning on December 4, 2003, sixteen 361 +/- 56.4-kg replacement dairy heifers were stratified by weight and breeding, and assigned to one of four 1.6-ha pastures (2 each of E+ and HM4) that were strip-grazed throughout the winter. Pastures were sampled before grazing was initiated (December 4), each time heifers were allowed access to a fresh pasture strip (December 26, January 15, and February 4), and when the study was terminated (February 26). Generally, fescue type and the fescue type x sampling date interaction exhibited only minor effects on total forage N, or partitioning of N within the cell solubles or the cell wall. For pregrazed forages, concentrations of N and N partitioned within the cell solubles both declined in a strongly linear relationship with sampling dates. In contrast, concentrations of cell-wall-associated N changed in erratic and often higher-ordered relationships with time, but the magnitude of these responses generally was limited. Unlike the partitioning of N within cell-wall and cell-soluble fractions, kinetic characteristics of ruminal N disappearance frequently exhibited interactions of fescue type and sampling date. For pregrazed forages, these included interactions for all response variables, and for postgrazed forages, fractions B and C, as well as rumen degradable protein. Ruminal disappearance rate for pregrazed E+ and HM4 exhibited quadratic (range = 0.057 to 0.082/h) and cubic (range = 0.057 to 0.075/h) relationships with time, respectively. For postgrazed E+ and HM4 forages, ruminal disappearance rate was unaffected (mean = 0.066/h) or only tended to be affected by sampling date (mean = 0.065/h), respectively. Concentrations of rumen degradable protein exhibited various curvilinear relationships with sampling dates, but disappearance was consistently extensive, and the overall range was relatively narrow (71.3 to 78.9% of N). These findings suggest that ruminal disappearance of N for autumn-stockpiled tall fescue forages remains extensive throughout the winter months and is only affected minimally by fescue type, sampling date, and grazing status.

Endocrine factors and ovarian follicles are influenced by body condition and somatotropin in postpartum beef cows.

Multiparous beef (1/4 to 3/8 Bos indicus; n = 99) cows were managed to achieve low (BCS = 4.3 +/- 0.1; n = 50) or moderate (BCS = 6.1 +/- 0.1; n = 49) body condition (BC) to determine the influence of bovine (b) ST on the number of follicles, diameter of largest follicle, and serum concentrations of IGF-I, triiodothy-ronine (T3), thyroxine (T4), and prolactin. Beginning 32 d postpartum, cows within each BC were assigned randomly to treatment with or without bST. Non-bST-treated cows received no treatment, and treated cows were administered bST (Posilac, 500 mg, s.c.) on d 32, 46, and 60 postpartum. On d 60, all cows received a controlled internal drug-releasing (CIDR) device for 7 d and PGF(2alpha) at CIDR removal (CIDR-PGF(2alpha)). Blood samples (7 mL) were collected at each bST treatment and d 39 and 67 postpartum. Ultrasound was performed 1 d after CIDR-PGF(2alpha) to determine the number of small (2 to 9 mm) and large (>/=10 mm) follicles and the diameter of largest follicle. Cows treated with bST in low BC had increased (P < 0.05) IGF-I vs. low-BC non-bST-treated cows on d 39, 46, 60, and 67 postpartum. Prolactin and T3 were greater (P < 0.05) in moderate-BC than in low-BC cows on all sample dates. Thyroxine was greater (P < 0.001) in moderate-BC cows on d 46, 60, and 67 compared with low-BC cows. On d 67, bST-treated cows had greater (P < 0.05) T4 compared with non-bST-treated cows. Diameter of the largest follicle 1 d after CIDR-PGF(2alpha) was greater (P < 0.01) in anestrous cows treated with bST than for non-bST-treated anestrous cows. Diameter of the largest follicle was correlated with concentrations of IGF-I (r >/= 0.18; P /= 0.17; P /= 0.20; P

Effects of dry cow treatment of beef cows on pathogenic organisms, milk somatic cell counts, and calf growth during the subsequent lactation.

Spring calving Angus and Angus x Hereford multiparous cows were utilized to determine the effects of intramammary treatment with penicillin G procaine (200,000 IU) and novobiocin (400 mg) at the time of weaning on udder health and calf growth after the subsequent calving. Cows were stratified by age and breed and assigned randomly to receive intramammary treatment (n = 99) at weaning or as untreated controls (n = 97). Quarter milk samples were collected at weaning and at 8 to 14 d after calving. Milk samples were analyzed for somatic cell counts (SCC) and mastitis-causing bacteria. Dry cow treatment decreased (P = 0.005) the number of cows infected after calving. Treatment decreased (P = 0.04) the number of cows that developed new infections and reduced (P = 0.03) the number of quarters with mastitis-causing bacteria after calving that were infected at weaning. Somatic cell counts after calving were greatest (P = 0.008) for cows infected with Staphylococcus aureus. Treatment did not alter (P = 0.19) SCC of quarters after calving that were infected with S. aureus at weaning but reduced (P = 0.002) SCC after calving of quarters that were infected with coagulase-negative staphylococci at weaning. Body weight of calves during early lactation was increased (P = 0.006) if cows with intramammary infection were treated at weaning. Treatment of noninfected cows at weaning increased (P = 0.008) adjusted 205-d weaning weights of calves after the subsequent lactation when compared with untreated noninfected cows. We conclude that treatment of beef cows at weaning with intramammary antibiotics decreased intramammary infections after calving, improved udder health during the subsequent lactation, and increased BW gain of the calves.

Effects of fescue type and sampling date on the ruminal disappearance kinetics of autumn-stockpiled tall fescue.

Two tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea Schreb.) forages, one an experimental host plant/endophyte association containing a novel endophyte (HM4) that produces low or nil concentrations of ergot alkaloids, and the other a typical association of Kentucky 31 tall fescue and the wild-type endophyte (Neotyphodium coenophialum; E+), were autumn-stockpiled following late-summer clipping and fertilization with 56 kg/ha of N to assess the nutritive value and ruminal disappearance kinetics of autumn-stockpiled tall fescue forages. Beginning on December 4, 2003, sixteen 361 +/- 56.4-kg replacement dairy heifers were stratified by weight and breeding and assigned to one of four 1.6-ha pastures (2 each of E+ and HM4) that were strip-grazed throughout the winter. Pastures were sampled before grazing was initiated (December 4), each time heifers were allowed access to a fresh strip (December 26, January 15, and February 4), and when the study was terminated (February 26). For fiber components, there were no interactions between fescue type and sampling date for either pregrazed or postgrazed forages. Over sampling dates, neutral detergent fiber (NDF; 56.5 to 67.8%), acid detergent fiber (27.7 to 34.9%), hemicellulose (28.8 to 34.0%), cellulose (25.0 to 28.1%), and lignin (3.61 to 10.05%) varied with sampling date, but patterns were almost exclusively curvilinear with time. Ruminal disappearance rate of dry matter (DM) was not affected by any treatment factor (overall mean for both pregrazed and postgrazed forages = 0.050 h(- 1)); similar responses were observed for NDF disappearance (overall mean = 0.048 h(- 1)). Interactions of fescue type and sampling date were observed for both pregrazed and postgrazed forages with respect to effective ruminal disappearance of DM; however, estimates were relatively high for all forages (overall mean = 64.0%). Effective disappearance of NDF was relatively extensive for all forages (overall mean = 55.4% of NDF). Based on the results of this trial, the endophyte status of stockpiled tall fescue forages had little practical effect on forage nutritive value and kinetics of ruminal DM or NDF disappearance. Overall, autumn-stockpiled tall fescue forages would appear to be a legitimate and lower cost alternative to harvested forages, and appear to possess suitable nutritional characteristics for developing dairy heifers in the Ozark Highlands.

Hemodynamic responses of the caudal artery to toxic tall fescue in beef heifers.

Color Doppler ultrasonography was used to compare blood flow characteristics in the caudal artery of heifers fed diets with endophyte (Neotyphodium coenophialum) infected (E+) or noninfected (E-) tall fescue seed. Eighteen crossbred (Angus x Brangus) heifers were assigned to 6 pens and were fed chopped alfalfa hay for 5 d and chopped alfalfa hay plus a concentrate that contained E-tall fescue seed for 9 d during an adjustment period. An 11-d experimental period followed, with animals in 3 pens fed chopped alfalfa hay plus a concentrate with E+ seed and those in the other 3 pens fed chopped hay plus concentrate with E E- seed. Color Doppler ultrasound measurements (caudal artery area, peak systolic velocity, end diastolic velocity, mean velocity, heart rate, stroke volume, and flow rate) and serum prolactin were monitored during the adjustment (baseline measures) and during the experimental period. Three baseline measures were collected on d 3, 5, and 6 during the adjustment period for comparison to post E+ seed exposure. Statistical analyses compared the proportionate differences between baseline and response at 4, 28, 52, 76, 100, 172, and 268 h from initial feeding of E+ seed. Serum prolactin concentrations on both diets were lower (P <0.001) than baseline beginning at 4 h from the start of the experimental period. However, trends in serum prolactin concentrations for heifers on the E- diet suggested ambient temperature was affecting these concentrations. Caudal artery area in E+ heifers had declined (P <0.10) from baseline by 4 h and was consistently lower (P <0.05) for the remainder of the period. Heart rates for E+ heifers were lower than the baseline rate from 4 (P <0.10) to 100 (P <0.001) h, but were similar (P >0.10) to the baseline for 172 and 268 h measures. Blood flow in E+ heifers was consistently lower than the baseline from 4 (P <0.05) to 172 (P <0.001) h, but was similar to the baseline at 268 h when heart rate was similar to the baseline rate. Caudal artery areas for the E- diet were similar to baseline areas except at 100 h when it was greater than baseline. Heart rates and flow rates for E- heifers did not differ (P >0.10) from baseline measures during the experimental period. Results indicated that onset of toxicosis was within 4 h of cattle exposure to E+ tall fescue and is related to vasoconstriction and reduction in heart rate.

Influence of body condition and bovine somatotropin on estrous behavior, reproductive performance, and concentrations of serum somatotropin and plasma fatty acids in postpartum Brahman-influenced cows.

Ninety-nine multiparous Brahman-influenced (1/4 to 3/8 Brahman) cows were managed to achieve low (BCS = 4.3 +/- 0.1; n = 50) or moderate (BCS = 6.1 +/- 0.1; n = 49) body condition (BC) to determine the influence of bovine somatotropin (bST) on estrous characteristics, reproductive performance, and concentrations of serum GH and plasma NEFA. Beginning 32 d postpartum, cows within each BC were assigned randomly to treatment with or without bST. Non-bST-treated cows received no treatment, and treated cows were administered bST (Posilac, 500 mg s.c.) on d -35, -21, and -7 before initiation of the breeding season. On d -7, all cows received an intravaginal, controlled internal drug-releasing (CIDR) device. On d 0 (initiation of the 70-d breeding season), the CIDR were removed and cows received prostaglandin F2alpha (PGF2alpha). Blood samples were collected from the median caudal vein of the cows at each bST treatment and at d -28 and 0. Estrous behavior was monitored by radiotelemetry during the first 30 d of the breeding season. Growth hormone was increased (P < 0.05) in low and moderate BC cows treated with bST. The percentage of cows detected in estrus during the first 30 d of the breeding season was decreased (P = 0.05) for low BC (64%) compared with moderate BC (82%) cows. The interval to first estrus tended (P = 0.07) to be shorter in low BC-bST-treated cows (3.7 +/- 1.9 d) than in moderate BC-bST-treated cows (9.6 +/- 1.8 d). During the first 30 d of the breeding season, cows in low BC had a decreased (P = 0.02) number of mounts received and increased (P = 0.001) quiescence between mounts compared with cows in moderate BC. The number of mounts received was reduced (P = 0.04) in bST-treated cows. More (P = 0.02) cows treated with bST became pregnant during the first 3 d of the breeding season compared with non-bST-treated cows. The cumulative first-service conception rate tended (P = 0.07) to be greater for bST-low BC cows than non-bST-treated cows in low or moderate BC. On d 0, NEFA were greater (P < 0.05) in bST-treated vs. non-bST-treated cows. Low BC and bST reduced the intensity of behavioral estrus in postpartum Brahman-influenced cows. However, bST increased the first-service conception rate during the first 30 d of breeding and pregnancy rates during the first 3 d of breeding in postpartum Brahman-influenced cows.