Optimized allocation of forest restoration zones to minimize soil losses in watersheds.

Increase of water erosion is one of the main problems in watersheds all over the world and directly affects soil and water resources, causing economic and environmental losses. We proposed a combination of Genetic Algorithm and Erosion/Deposition modelling to allocate vegetation zones in order to reduce soil losses within watersheds. In this study, we have used Unit Stream Power Based Erosion Deposition (USPED) model to predict the spatial distribution of erosion and sediment deposition. Based on USPED estimates, Genetic Algorithm optimize site as well size of forest restoration zones in order to reduce soil losses. Proposed approach considered watershed entirely, in a cell-level optimization, to find the best possible arrangement of forest zones. For initial scenario, soil loss estimate was 2.045,55 ton. ha-1. year-1 and after optimization we achieved 52% reduction. Optimized forest zones formed connected and compacted patches, which enable field implementation. Methodology is also applicable to other watersheds around world.

Markov chains and cellular automata to predict environments subject to desertification.

The foremost objective of this study was to analyze the performance of a Markov chain/cellular automata model for predicting land use/land cover changes in environments predisposed to desertification. The study area is the Vieira river basin, located in Montes Claros (MG, Brazil). Land use/land cover prognosis was performed for the year 2005 so that this result could be compared with the ranked image for the same year, taken as ground truth. Kappa indices were used to evaluate the change level that occurred between these two cases. Results from cellular automata were evaluated from those of the Markov chain model. The latter proved to be efficient in the quantitative prediction of changes in land use/land cover. Regarding the cellular automata, an average performance was noted in the spatial distribution of classes. Specifically, with regard to desertification, the use of the CA-Markov model was effective at estimating the total area of the most susceptible class to this process, Bare Soil; however, it was inefficient in its spatialization. Even with the caveats related to the performance of cellular automata, the overall prediction capacity of CA-Markov models can be considered as good.

A new methodology for royalties distribution of the Itaipu hydroelectric plant: The hydrographic basin as the unit of analysis.

Over the past few years, many sectors such as energy generation, industry, domestic supply, and agriculture have encountered serious environmental problems due to the lack of rainfall. Thus, the purpose of this paper is to review the current methodology of royalties distribution from Itaipu hydroelectric plant. In the proposed approach, two criteria were considered to establish the division of Itaipu royalties: (1) the relative percentage of the water flow in the generation of electricity and, (2) the relative percentage of the drop in the height of water. 62 hydroelectric plants were evaluated in this study. In 52 plants the water flow was the factor that most contributed to the generation of electricity. In 2013, 346 municipalities benefited the Itaipu royalties. With the proposed methodology, 1,327 municipalities will receive the resource, what would increase the revenue of each of these municipalities by, on average, US$ 87,436.91 per year. The methodology presented herein proposes a reduction in the environmental disparity that now exists in Brazil, through improvement to Government instruments and environmental policies. The distribution of royalties throughout the watershed can provide additional resources to support payment programs for environmental services at the state and municipality levels.

Spatial and temporal distribution of urban heat islands.

The formation of an urban heat island (UHI) is one of the most common impacts of the urbanization process. To mitigate the effects of UHI, the planning of urban forests (e.g., creation of parks, forests and afforestation streets) has been the major tool applied in this context. Thus, the aim of this study is to evaluate the spatial and temporal distribution of heat islands in Vila Velha, ES, Brazil using the mono-window algorithm. The study followed these methodological steps: 1) mapping of urban green areas through a photointerpretation screen; 2) application of the mono-window algorithm to obtain the spatial and temporal patterns of land surface temperature (LST); 3) correlation between LST and the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) and normalized difference build-up index (NDBI); 4) application of ecological evaluation index. The results showed that the mean values of LST in urban areas were at least 2.34 to 7.19°C higher than undeveloped areas. Moreover, the positive correlation between LST and NDBI showed an amplifying effect of the developed areas for UHI, while areas with a predominance of vegetation attenuated the effect of UHI. Urban centers, clustered in some parts of the city, received the worst ecological assessment index. Finally, the adoption of measures to guide the urban forest planning within urban centers is necessary to mitigate the effect of heat islands and provide thermal comfort in urban areas.

Fuzzy logic applied to prospecting for areas for installation of wood panel industries.

Prospecting for suitable areas for forestry operations, where the objective is a reduction in production and transportation costs, as well as the maximization of profits and available resources, constitutes an optimization problem. However, fuzzy logic is an alternative method for solving this problem. In the context of prospecting for suitable areas for the installation of wood panel industries, we propose applying fuzzy logic analysis for simulating the planting of different species and eucalyptus hybrids in Espírito Santo State, Brazil. The necessary methodological steps for this study are as follows: a) agriclimatological zoning of different species and eucalyptus hybrids; b) the selection of the vector variables; c) the application of the Euclidean distance to the vector variables; d) the application of fuzzy logic to matrix variables of the Euclidean distance; and e) the application of overlap fuzzy logic to locate areas for installation of wood panel industries. Among all the species and hybrids, Corymbia citriodora showed the highest percentage values for the combined very good and good classes, with 8.60%, followed by Eucalyptus grandis with 8.52%, Eucalyptus urophylla with 8.35% and Urograndis with 8.34%. The fuzzy logic analysis afforded flexibility in prospecting for suitable areas for the installation of wood panel industries in the Espírito Santo State can bring great economic and social benefits to the local population with the generation of jobs, income, tax revenues and GDP increase for the State and municipalities involved. The proposed methodology can be adapted to other areas and agricultural crops.

Itaipu royalties: The role of the hydroelectric sector in water resource management.

For countries dependent on hydroelectricity, water scarcity poses a real risk. Hydroelectric plants are among the most vulnerable enterprises to climate change. Investing in the conservation of the hydrographic basin is a solution found by the hydropower sector. Given the importance of the Itaipu plant to the energy matrix of Brazil and Paraguay, the aim of this study is to review the current distribution of royalties from Itaipu, using the hydrographic basin as a of criterion of analysis. Approximately 98.73% of the Itaipu basin is in Brazil. The flow contributes 99% of the total electricity generated there, while the drop height of the water contributes only 1%. Under the current policy, royalties are shared equally between Brazil and Paraguay. In the proposed approach, each country would receive a percentage for their participation in the drop height and water flow in the output of the turbines, which are intrinsic factors for electricity generation. Thus, Brazil would receive 98.35% of the royalties and Paraguay, 1.65%. The inclusion of the hydrographic basin as a criterion for the distribution of royalties will promote more efficient water resource management, since the payment will be distributed throughout the basin of the plant. The methodology can be applied to hydroelectric projects worldwide.

Geotechnology and landscape ecology applied to the selection of potential forest fragments for seed harvesting.

The Atlantic Forest biome is recognized for its biodiversity and is one of the most threatened biomes on the planet, with forest fragmentation increasing due to uncontrolled land use, land occupation, and population growth. The most serious aspect of the forest fragmentation process is the edge effect and the loss of biodiversity. In this context, the aim of this study was to evaluate the dynamics of forest fragmentation and select potential forest fragments with a higher degree of conservation for seed harvesting in the Itapemirim river basin, Espírito Santo State, Brazil. Image classification techniques, forest landscape ecology, and multi-criteria analysis were used to evaluate the evolution of forest fragmentation to develop the landscape metric indexes, and to select potential forest fragments for seed harvesting for the years 1985 and 2013. According to the results, there was a reduction of 2.55% of the occupancy of the fragments in the basin between the years 1985 and 2013. For the years 1985 and 2013, forest fragment units 2 and 3 were spatialized with a high potential for seed harvesting, representing 6.99% and 16.01% of the total fragments, respectively. The methodology used in this study has the potential to be used to support decisions for the selection of potential fragments for seed harvesting because selecting fragments in different environments by their spatial attributes provides a greater degree of conservation, contributing to the protection and conscious management of the forests. The proposed methodology can be adapted to other areas and different biomes of the world.

Influence of relief on permanent preservation areas.

Many countries have environmental legislation to protecting natural resources on private property. In Brazil, the Brazilian Forestry Code determines specific areas to maintain with natural vegetation cover, known as areas of permanent preservation (APP). Currently, there are few studies that relate topographic variables on APP. In this context, we sought to evaluate the influence of relief on the conservation of areas of permanent preservation (APP) in the areas surrounding Caparaó National Park, Brazil. By using the chi-squared statistical test, we verified that the presence of forest cover is closely associated with altitude. The classes of APP in better conservation status are slopes in addition to hilltops and mountains, whereas APP streams and springs are among the areas most affected by human activities. The most deforested areas are located at altitudes below 1100.00 m and on slopes less than 45°. All orientations of the sides were significant for APP conservation status, with the southern, southeastern, and southwestern sides showing the lower degrees of impact. The methodology can be adjusted to environmental legislation to other countries.

GIS applied to agriclimatological zoning and agrotoxin residue monitoring in tomatoes: A case study in Espírito Santo state, Brazil.

Searches related to global warming have provided important insights into the response of terrestrial ecosystems, but few have examined the impacts on agricultural crops, particularly those associated with the monitoring of agrotoxin residues. In this context, the agriclimatological zoning is an important tool in the planning and consolidation of crops and should be considered in any initiative that involves such planning. This tool is particularly important in the analysis of agrotoxin residues and may be applied by the Program Analysis of Agrotoxin Residues in Food (PARA) created by the National Health Vigilance Agency of Brazil (ANVISA), which enables greater food security and contributes to the improvement of human health. The aim of this study was to elaborate the current and future agriclimatological zoning for the tomato crop, relating it with the monitoring of samples collected by PARA in Espírito Santo State, Brazil. The results indicate that a temperature increase of 5 °C creates a decrease in apt areas from 37.3% to 4.3%, for a total reduction of 33 percentage points (-88.5%). It is noted that of the 41 producing municipalities, only 26 have apt areas greater than 50%, highlighting the municipalities with apt areas greater than 90%, represented by Mantenópolis (100%), Guaçuí (98.5%), São José do Calçado (97.8%), Irupi (94.4%), Santa Teresa (92.3%), and Marechal Floriano (91.4%). The veracity of agriclimatological zoning is proved by a Kendall rank correlation coefficient of 0.876, indicating that the distribution of the variables of apt areas and productivity are similar at the significance level of 0.05 with a confidence interval 95%. After validation of the agriclimatological zoning for the tomato crop, it is recommended that the PARA should monitor 36 municipalities rather than the current 18, representing an increase of 100%. The methodology can be adjusted to agricultural crops of other countries.

Biological and morphological characteristics of hylesia paulex (lepidoptera: saturniidae) fed with eucalyptus urophylla (myrtaceae) / Características biológicas y morfológicas de hylesia paulex (lepidoptera: saturniidae) alimentadas con eucalyptus urophylla (myrtaceae) / Características biológicas e morfológicas da hylesia paulex (lepidoptera: saturniidae) alimentadas com eucalyptus urophylla (myrtaceae)

Hylesia spp. (Saturniidae), important moths for public health due to urticating bristles of their larvae and/or adults, are collected in different habitats with potential to defoliate plants in agriculture and forest systems. Biological and morphological characteristics of Hylesia paulex (Dognin, 1922) (Lepidoptera: Saturniidae) fed with Eucalyptus urophylla (Myrtaceae) were studied in the laboratory. Recently-emerged caterpillars of this species were separated in 10 plastic pots (500ml) with 30 of them per pot, and fed daily with fresh leaves of E. urophylla until they reached adult stage. The egg incubation period of H. paulex was 32.00 ±1.19 days with 65.32 ±14.52% viability, and the duration of the larval stage reached 67.83 ±0.84 days, with seven instars. The gregarious behavior is important to maintain a high survival rate during this stage for H. paulex. The pre-pupa and pupa stages of this insect lasted 3.87 ±0.16 and 21.67 ±0.79 days, respectively. The longevity of females of this species was longer (4.50 ±0.54 days) than that of males (2.80 ±0.44 days). The mean number of eggs per egg mass was 132.3. Moths of H. paulex completed its life cycle, satisfactorily, with leaves of E. urophylla in the laboratory.

Hylesia spp. (Saturnidae), una polilla importante en salud pública debido a las cerdas urticantes de las l arvas y/o de los adultos, son recolectadas en diferentes ambientes con potencial de desfoliación de plantas tanto en agricultura como en sistemas forestales. Características biológicas y morfológicas de Hylesia paulex (Dognin, 1922) (Lepidoptera: Saturniidae) alimentados con Eucalyptus urophylla fueron estudiados en laboratorio. Larvas recién emergidas de esa especie fueron separadas en vasos plásticos (500 ml) con 30 individuos por vaso y alimentados diariamente con hojas frescas de E. urophylla hasta alcanzar el estado adulto. El periodo de incubación de los huevos de H. paulex fue de 32 ±1,19 días con un 65,32 ±14,52% de viabilidad y duración del estado larval de 67,83 ±0,84 días, con siete instares. El comportamiento gregario es importante para mantener una alta tasa de supervivencia durante estos estados en H. paulex. Los estados de pre-pupa y pupa del insecto duraron 3,87 ±0,16 y 21,67 ±0,79 días, respectivamente. La longevidad de las hembras de la especie fue de 4,50 ±0,54 días y para machos de 2,80 ±0,44 días. El número medio de huevos por masa de huevos fue de 132,3. La polilla H. paulex completa su ciclo de vida, satisfactoriamente, con hojas de E. urophylla en laboratorio.

Hylesia spp. (Saturniidae), mariposas importantes para a saúde pública devido às cerdas urticantes de suas larvas e/ou adultos, são coletadas em diferentes hábitats com potencial de desfolhar plantas em sistemas agrícolas e florestais. Parâmetros biológicos e morfológicos de Hylesia paulex (Dognin, 1922) (Lepidoptera: Saturniidae) alimentada com Eucalyptus urophylla (Myrtaceae) foram estudados em laboratório. Lagartas recém-emergidas dessa espécie foram separadas em 10 potes plásticos (500ml) com 30 delas por pote e alimentadas, diariamente, com folhas frescas de E. urophylla até o estágio adulto. O período de incubação dos ovos de H. paulex foi de 32,00 ±1,19 dias com 65,32 ±14,52% de viabilidade e duração do estágio larval de 67,83 ±0,84 dias, com sete estádios. O comportamento gregário é importante para manter a alta taxa de sobrevivência durante esses estádios para H. paulex. Os estágios de pré-pupa e pupa desse inseto duraram 3,87 ±0,16 e 21,67 ±0,79 dias, respectivamente. A longevidade das fêmeas dessa espécie foi maior (4,50 ±0,54 dias) que a dos machos (2,80 ±0,44 dias). O número de ovos/postura foi de 132,3. Mariposas de H. paulex completaram seu ciclo de vida, satisfatoriamente, com folhas de E. urophylla em laboratório.