Cadmium stress dictates central carbon flux and alters membrane composition in Streptococcus pneumoniae.

Metal ion homeostasis is essential for all forms of life. However, the breadth of intracellular impacts that arise upon dysregulation of metal ion homeostasis remain to be elucidated. Here, we used cadmium, a non-physiological metal ion, to investigate how the bacterial pathogen, Streptococcus pneumoniae, resists metal ion stress and dyshomeostasis. By combining transcriptomics, metabolomics and metalloproteomics, we reveal that cadmium stress dysregulates numerous essential cellular pathways including central carbon metabolism, lipid membrane biogenesis and homeostasis, and capsule production at the transcriptional and/or functional level. Despite the breadth of cellular pathways susceptible to metal intoxication, we show that S. pneumoniae is able to maintain viability by utilizing cellular pathways that are predominately metal-independent, such as the pentose phosphate pathway to maintain energy production. Collectively, this work provides insight into the cellular processes impacted by cadmium and how resistance to metal ion toxicity is achieved in S. pneumoniae.

Optimizing red blood cell protein extraction for biomarker quantitation with mass spectrometry.

Red blood cells (RBC) are the most common cell type found in blood. They might serve as reservoir for biomarker research as they are anuclear and lack the ability to synthesize proteins. Not many biomarker assays, however, have been conducted on RBC because of their large dynamic range of proteins, high abundance of lipids, and hemoglobin interferences. Here, we developed a semiquantitative mass spectrometry-based assay that targeted 144 proteins and compared the efficiency of urea, sodium deoxycholate, acetonitrile, and HemoVoid™ in their extraction of the RBC proteome. Our results indicate that protein extraction with HemoVoid™ led to hemoglobin reduction and increased detection of low abundance proteins. Although hemoglobin interference after deoxycholate and urea extraction was high, there were adequate amounts of low abundance proteins for quantitation. Extraction with acetonitrile led to an overall decrease in protein abundances probably as a result of precipitation. Overall, the best compromise in sensitivity and sample processing time was achieved with the urea-trypsin digestion protocol. This provided the basis for large-scale evaluations of protein targets as potential blood-based biomarkers. As a proof of concept, we applied this assay to determine that alpha-synuclein, a prominent marker in Parkinson's disease, has an average concentration of approximately 40 µg mL-1 in RBC. This is important to know as the concentration of alpha-synuclein in plasma, typically in the picogram per milliliter range, might be partially derived from lysed RBC. Utilization of this assay will prove useful for future biomarker studies and provide a more complete analytical toolbox for the measurement of blood-derived proteins. Graphical abstract.

Characterization of the metal status of natively purified alpha-synuclein from human blood, brain tissue, or recombinant sources using size exclusion ICP-MS reveals no significant binding of Cu, Fe or Zn.

Abnormal protein structure and function have been implicated as the toxic species in many diseases including neurodegenerative diseases, such as Parkinson's. One key pathological hallmark in Parkinson's disease is the formation of Lewy bodies, of which alpha-synuclein is the major component. These Lewy bodies are formed by the aggregation and oligomerization of alpha-synuclein. The oligomeric form of the protein is suspected to be the main contributor to the neurotoxicity seen in the disease. The formation of toxic oligomers has been shown to occur through reactions with lipids, dopamine, hydrogen peroxide as well as metals. The interplay between metals and alpha-synuclein has also been proposed to cause oxidative stress, which promotes the formation of protein aggregates. Most studies investigating the relationship of Cu, Fe and Zn with alpha-synuclein have relied on the use of recombinant protein and there is little evidence that the interaction between metals and alpha-synuclein are physiologically relevant. To address this gap in our knowledge we have characterized the metal content and metal binding capacity of alpha-synuclein purified from human erythrocytes and brain tissue. In addition, we examined the ability of dityrosine cross-linked alpha-synuclein oligomers to bind Cu, Fe and Zn. Using size exclusion chromatography-inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry we demonstrated that native human alpha-synuclein, recombinant familial mutants and oligomers do not bind to significant amounts of metal even when they are added to the protein in excess.

Characterization and Identification of Dityrosine Cross-Linked Peptides Using Tandem Mass Spectrometry.

The use of mass spectrometry coupled with chemical cross-linking of proteins has become a powerful tool for proteins structure and interactions studies. Unlike structural analysis of proteins using chemical reagents specific for lysine or cysteine residues, identification of gas-phase fragmentation patterns of endogenous dityrosine cross-linked peptides have not been investigated. Dityrosine cross-linking in proteins and peptides are clinical markers of oxidative stress, aging, and neurodegenerative diseases including Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease. In this study, we investigated and characterized the fragmentation pattern of a synthetically prepared dityrosine cross-linked dimer of Aß(1-16) using ESI tandem mass spectrometry. We then detailed the fragmentation pattern of dityrosine cross-linked Aß(1-16), using collision induced dissociation (CID), higher-energy collision induced dissociation (HCD), electron transfer dissociation (ETD), and electron capture dissociation (ECD). Application of these generic fragmentation rules of dityrosine cross-linked peptides allowed for the identification of dityrosine cross-links in peptides of Aß and α-synuclein generated in vitro by enzymatic peroxidation. We report, for the first time, the dityrosine cross-linked residues in human hemoglobin and α-synuclein under oxidative conditions. Together these tools open up the potential for automated analysis of this naturally occurring post-translation modification in neurodegenerative diseases as well as other pathological conditions.

Selenium Levels in Serum, Red Blood Cells, and Cerebrospinal Fluid of Alzheimer's Disease Patients: A Report from the Australian Imaging, Biomarker & Lifestyle Flagship Study of Ageing (AIBL).

Selenium (Se) protects cells against oxidative stress damage through a range of bioactive selenoproteins. Increased oxidative stress is a prominent feature of Alzheimer's disease (AD), and previous studies have shown that Se deficiency is associated with age-related cognitive decline. In this study, we assessed Se status in different biofluids from a subgroup of participants in the Australian Imaging, Biomarkers and Lifestyle Flagship Study of Ageing. As Se in humans can either be an active component of selenoproteins or inactive via non-specific incorporation into other proteins, we used both size exclusion chromatography-inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (SEC-ICP-MS) and tandem mass spectrometry to characterize selenoproteins in serum. We observed no differences in total Se concentration in serum or cerebrospinal fluid of AD subjects compared to mildly cognitively impairment patients and healthy controls. However, Se levels in erythrocytes were decreased in AD compared to controls. SEC-ICP-MS analysis revealed a dominant Se-containing fraction. This fraction was subjected to standard protein purification and a bottom-up proteomics approach to confirm that the abundant Se in the fraction was due, in part, to selenoprotein P. The lack of change in the Se level is at odds with our previous observations in a Brazilian population deficient in Se, and we attribute this to the Australian cohort being Se-replete.

Standards for Quantitative Metalloproteomic Analysis Using Size Exclusion ICP-MS.

Metals are essential for protein function as cofactors to catalyze chemical reactions. Disruption of metal homeostasis is implicated in a number of diseases including Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease, but the exact role these metals play is yet to be fully elucidated. Identification of metalloproteins encounters many challenges and difficulties. Here we report an approach that allows metalloproteins in complex samples to be quantified. This is achieved using size exclusion chromatography coupled with inductively coupled plasma - mass spectrometry (SEC-ICP-MS). Using six known metalloproteins, the size exclusion column can be calibrated and the respective trace elements (iron, copper, zinc, cobalt, iodine) can be used for quantification. SEC-ICP-MS traces of human brain and plasma are presented. The use of these metalloprotein standards provides the means to quantitatively compare metalloprotein abundances between biological samples. This technique is poised to help shed light on the role of metalloproteins in neurodegenerative disease as well as other diseases where imbalances in trace elements are implicated.

Neonatal iron supplementation potentiates oxidative stress, energetic dysfunction and neurodegeneration in the R6/2 mouse model of Huntington's disease.

Huntington's disease (HD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder caused by a CAG repeat expansion that encodes a polyglutamine tract in huntingtin (htt) protein. Dysregulation of brain iron homeostasis, oxidative stress and neurodegeneration are consistent features of the HD phenotype. Therefore, environmental factors that exacerbate oxidative stress and iron dysregulation may potentiate HD. Iron supplementation in the human population is common during infant and adult-life stages. In this study, iron supplementation in neonatal HD mice resulted in deterioration of spontaneous motor running activity, elevated levels of brain lactate and oxidized glutathione consistent with increased energetic dysfunction and oxidative stress, and increased striatal and motor cortical neuronal atrophy, collectively demonstrating potentiation of the disease phenotype. Oxidative stress, energetic, and anatomic markers of degeneration were not affected in wild-type littermate iron-supplemented mice. Further, there was no effect of elevated iron intake on disease outcomes in adult HD mice. We have demonstrated an interaction between the mutant huntingtin gene and iron supplementation in neonatal HD mice. Findings indicate that elevated neonatal iron intake potentiates mouse HD and promotes oxidative stress and energetic dysfunction in brain. Neonatal-infant dietary iron intake level may be an environmental modifier of human HD.

Profiling the iron, copper and zinc content in primary neuron and astrocyte cultures by rapid online quantitative size exclusion chromatography-inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry.

Metals often determine the chemical reactivity of the proteins to which they are bound. Each cell in the body tightly maintains a unique metalloproteomic profile, mostly dependent on function. This paper describes an analytical online flow injection quantitative size exclusion chromatography-inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (SEC-ICP-MS) method, which was applied to profiling the metal-binding proteins found in primary cultures of neurons and astrocytes. This method can be conducted using similar amounts of sample to those used for Western blotting (20-150 µg protein), and has a turnaround time of <15 minutes. Metalloprotein standards for Fe (as ferritin), Cu and Zn (as superoxide dismutase-1) were used to construct multi-point calibration curves for online quantification of metalloproteins by SEC-ICP-MS. Homogenates of primary neuron and astrocyte cultures were analysed by SEC-ICP-MS. Online quantification by external calibration with metalloprotein standards determined the mass of metal eluting from the column relative to time (as pg s(-1)). Total on-column Fe, Cu and Zn detection limits ranged from 0.825 ± 0.005 ng to 13.6 ± 0.7 pg. Neurons and astrocytes exhibited distinct metalloprotein profiles, featuring both ubiquitous and unique metalloprotein species. Separation and detection by SEC-ICP-MS allows appraisal of these metalloproteins in their native state, and online quantification was achieved using this relatively simple external calibration process.

Metalloproteomics: principles, challenges and applications to neurodegeneration.

Trace elements are required for a variety of normal biological functions. As our understanding of neurodegenerative disease advances we are identifying a number of metalloenzymes involved in disease process. Thus, the future of metals in neurobiology will rely more on detailed information regarding what metalloenzymes are present and how they are involved in the pathophysiology of disease. To gain this detailed information, we will rely less on bulk measures of the amount of a trace elements in a particular tissue and turn to metalloproteomic techniques to help elucidate both metalloprotein structure and function. Recent advances in metalloproteomics will translate to a richer understanding of the mechanism and precise role of metalloenzymes and proteins in the brain.