Application of spatial environmental indicators in the assessment of degradation potential of water resources in water basins.

Changes in land use have been occurring in a continuous and disorderly way in recent decades due to rapid population growth and the growing demand for food. These constant changes result in a series of harmful effects to the environment, especially to water resources, significantly changing their availability and quality. This study aims to evaluate the degradation potential of watersheds through an evaluation of some environmental indicators using arithmetic means to construct an index called in this research "index of potential environmental degradation" (IPED). To form the IPED, the hydrographic sub-basins of the Sorocabuçu River, located in the central west of the State of São Paulo, Brazil, comprised the study area. The results showed that most hydrographic sub-basins, that is, eight units, present degradation values ranging from moderate to very high, resulting mainly from low conservation values of forests plus a use destined to the planting of temporary cultures depending on good physical conditions. On the other hand, only one sub-basin showed a low degradation value. The methodology used for the development of the IPED is easy to apply and an effective tool for environmental analyses. It may contribute to studies and forms of planning and land use management aiming the conservation of water resources and protected areas and reduction of degradation.

Geomorphometric environmental fragility of a watershed: a multicriteria spatial approach.

Knowledge and understanding of the functioning of watersheds is essential for constructing future scenarios that aim to minimize instability. However, new approaches including variables, methods, and techniques into traditional methodologies contribute to environmental planning and management of such territorial units. This study aims to propose a model based on a multicriterion spatial approach for the analysis of the geomorphometric environmental fragility of watersheds. This study was conducted in the Murundú-Paiol watershed, located in the state of São Paulo, Brazil. Morphometric, geological, pedological, hypsometric, slope, land use, and land cover data were evaluated and integrated using geotechnologies for processing and analytical hierarchy process (AHP) considering a weighted linear combination for an integrated spatial analysis of the watershed. The study area shows a greater predisposition to fragility in areas of flat and smooth reliefs, especially around the main river, where there is a greater presence of anthropic areas. The methodology proposed here, which uses a multicriterion spatial approach and AHP, combined with technical and scientific data, allows replicating the model to another watersheds. Modeling was validated in a cooperative way using an in-field, traditional method. The watershed evaluated showed that 49.13% and 26.83% of lands have medium and low fragility, respectively, while about 17% of lands have a high fragility and their management should be a priority. Modeling correlates strongly and positively with fragility class detailing, and field areas corroborate the model proposed here. This evidenced a robust analysis of factors that affect the geomorphometric environmental fragility of watersheds. The method is efficient in contributing to environmental planning and management of this territorial unit.

Valuation methodology of laminar erosion potential using fuzzy inference systems in a Brazilian savanna.

This study presents an approach on the evaluation of potential laminar erosion in the Ribeirão Sucuri Grande watershed. It is located in the northeast of the state of Goiás, Brazil, a conservation area under strong anthropogenic pressure. A Mamdani fuzzy inference system was designed using linguistic variables, pertinence functions, and a set of rules associated to a traditional laminar erosion prediction model through the environmental conditioners slope, erodibility, and degree of soil protection. The laminar erosion prediction model associated with fuzzy logic is a qualitative evaluation of erosive potential capable of being spatialized with a greater level of detail, increasing the traditional classification by two levels. The processing of environmental and soil conditioning factors using the fuzzy logic resulted in values between 2.5 and 9.1, which places the basin at a low to very high laminar erosion potential. The results indicate areas that demand a greater attention regarding soil management; 56.89% of the area has a medium to high laminar erosion and high to very high erosion (6.99%).

Urbanization of Brazilian spotted fever in a municipality of the southeastern region: epidemiology and spatial distribution.

INTRODUCTION: Brazilian spotted fever is an emerging zoonosis notified mainly in the Southeast of Brazil, especially due to its high level of lethality. OBJECTIVE: To analyze the epidemiological and spatial pattern of the disease in the municipality of Valinhos (106,793 inhabitants), São Paulo, Southeastern region of Brazil, in the period between 2001 and 2012. METHODS: All laboratory-confirmed cases with likely site of infection in the city (n = 49) notified in the Brazilian Case Registry Database were studied. Sites were geocoded using the cartographic base of the city and Google Earth (geographic coordinates) with correction according to the Brazilian Geodetic System. We used the Kernel estimator to analyze the density of the cases on the map. Land cover and distance to basins of all cases were analyzed. Information about tick species and primary hosts were obtained from reports of the Superintendence of Control of Endemic Diseases. RESULTS: Seasonality of the disease was observed with the highest incidence from June to November, and in 2005 and 2011. The most affected groups were men (79.6%) aged 20-49 years old (49%). Lethality was found to be 42.9%. Maps showed the progressive registration of cases in the urban area. Capybaras were reported as the main primary host, and Amblyomma cajennense was identified in probable sites of infection during field investigation. The likely sites of infection were mostly located near basins, dirty pastures, and bordering woods. CONCLUSIONS: The transmission pattern of Brazilian spotted fever in Valinhos is similar to that in other cities in the region, where capybara is the main primary host and an amplifier of R. rickettsii. Over the years, a higher occurrence of cases has been identified in the urban area of the city.

Urbanization of Brazilian spotted fever in a municipality of the southeastern region: epidemiology and spatial distribution / Urbanização da febre maculosa brasileira em município da região Sudeste: epidemiologia e distribuição espacial

Brazilian spotted fever is an emerging zoonosis notified mainly in the Southeast of Brazil, especially due to its high level of lethality.

[Analysis of the relation between the spatial distribution of morbidities due to obesity and hypertension for the State of São Paulo, Brazil, from 2000 to 2010]. / Análise da relação entre a distribuição espacial das morbidades por obesidade e hipertensão arterial para o estado de São Paulo, Brasil, de 2000 a 2010.

The increased prevalence of obesity in many countries in the last decade has resulted in increased morbidity and mortality from hypertension and associated complications. The objective of this work is to analyze the spatial distribution of obesity and hypertension in the state of São Paulo in the period from 2000 to 2010, based on hospital records and admissions from the Hospital Information System of the Unified Health System (HIS - SUS). Coefficients were used for the prevalence of the disease in each municipality averaged out by the empirical Bayesian method, enabling visualization of the spatial pattern of these morbidities in the state. The spatial dependence of these standards was assessed by checking the autocorrelation between the indicators by calculating Moran's Index of Spatial Autocorrelation. Furthermore, the positive correlation (Pearson) between obesity and hypertension was investigated. Data and maps showed clusters of 87 municipalities where there are higher and lower prevalence of hypertension and obesity in the location with marked autocorrelation between neighboring municipalities. The Pearson correlation coefficient found for these municipalities was 0.404 and suggests an association between the morbidities. The spatial analysis techniques proved useful for planning public health actions.

Análise da relação entre a distribuição espacial das morbidades por obesidade e hipertensão arterial para o estado de São Paulo, Brasil, de 2000 a 2010 / Analysis of the relation between the spatial distribution of morbidities due to obesity and hypertension for the State of São Paulo, Brazil, from 2000 to 2010

A expansão da obesidade em diversos países do mundo na última década tem resultado no aumento da morbidade e mortalidade por hipertensão arterial e suas complicações. O objetivo deste trabalho é analisar a distribuição espacial da obesidade e hipertensão arterial no estado de São Paulo no período de 2000 a 2010, a partir de registros hospitalares e internação do Sistema de Informações Hospitalares do Sistema Único de Saúde (SIH - SUS). Foram utilizados coeficientes de prevalência das doenças em cada município suavizadas pelo método bayesiano empírico, permitindo uma visualização do padrão espacial dessas morbidades no Estado. Foi explorada a dependência espacial destes padrões verificando a autocorrelação entre os indicadores por meio do cálculo do Índice de Autocorrelação Espacial de Moran. Além disso, estudou-se a correlação positiva (Pearson) entre obesidade e hipertensão. Os dados e os mapas mostraram clusters de 87 municípios onde há maior e menor prevalência de hipertensão e obesidade no espaço com forte autocorrelação entre os municípios vizinhos. O coeficiente correlação de Pearson encontrado para esses municípios foi de 0,404 e sugere associação entre as morbidades. As técnicas de análise espacial mostraram-se úteis para o planejamento de ações de saúde pública.

The increased prevalence of obesity in many countries in the last decade has resulted in increased morbidity and mortality from hypertension and associated complications. The objective of this work is to analyze the spatial distribution of obesity and hypertension in the state of São Paulo in the period from 2000 to 2010, based on hospital records and admissions from the Hospital Information System of the Unified Health System (HIS - SUS). Coefficients were used for the prevalence of the disease in each municipality averaged out by the empirical Bayesian method, enabling visualization of the spatial pattern of these morbidities in the state. The spatial dependence of these standards was assessed by checking the autocorrelation between the indicators by calculating Moran's Index of Spatial Autocorrelation. Furthermore, the positive correlation (Pearson) between obesity and hypertension was investigated. Data and maps showed clusters of 87 municipalities where there are higher and lower prevalence of hypertension and obesity in the location with marked autocorrelation between neighboring municipalities. The Pearson correlation coefficient found for these municipalities was 0.404 and suggests an association between the morbidities. The spatial analysis techniques proved useful for planning public health actions.

Spatial distribution of the risk of dengue and the entomological indicators in Sumaré, state of São Paulo, Brazil.

Dengue fever is a major public health problem worldwide, caused by any of four virus (DENV-1, DENV-2, DENV-3 and DENV-4; Flaviviridae: Flavivirus), transmitted by Aedes aegypti mosquito. Reducing the levels of infestation by A. aegypti is one of the few current strategies to control dengue fever. Entomological indicators are used by dengue national control program to measure the infestation of A. aegypti, but little is known about predictive power of these indicators to measure dengue risk. In this spatial case-control study, we analyzed the spatial distribution of the risk of dengue and the influence of entomological indicators of A. aegypti in its egg, larva-pupa and adult stages occurring in a mid-size city in the state of São Paulo. The dengue cases were those confirmed by the city's epidemiological surveillance system and the controls were obtained through random selection of points within the perimeter of the inhabited area. The values of the entomological indicators were extrapolated for the entire study area through the geostatistical ordinary kriging technique. For each case and control, the respective indicator values were obtained, according with its geographical coordinates and analyzed by using a generalized additive model. Dengue incidence demonstrated a seasonal behavior, as well as the entomological indicators of all mosquito's evolutionary stages. The infestation did not present a significant variation in intensity and was not a limiting or determining factor of the occurrence of cases in the municipality. The risk maps of the disease from crude and adjusted generalized additive models did not present differences, suggesting that areas with the highest values of entomological indicators were not associated with the incidence of dengue. The inclusion of other variables in the generalized additive models may reveal the modulatory effect for the risk of the disease, which is not found in this study.

The AIDS epidemic in the Amazon region: a spatial case-control study in Rondonia, Brazil / Epidemia de Sida en la region amazonica: estudio caso control espacial en Rondonia, Brasil / Epidemia da Aids na regiao amazonica: estudo caso controle espacial em Rondonia, Brasil

OBJECTIVE To analyze spatial changes in the risk of AIDS and the relationship between AIDS incidence and socioeconomic variables in the state of Rondonia, Amazon region. METHODS A spatial, population case-control study in Rondonia, Brazil, based on 1,780 cases reported to the Epidemiological Surveillance System and controls based on demographic data from 1987 to 2006. The cases were grouped into five consecutive four-year periods. A generalized additive model was adjusted to the data; the dependent variable was the status of the individuals (case or control), and the independent variables were a bi-dimensional spline of the geographic coordinates and some municipality-level socioeconomic variables. The observed values of the Moran’s I test were compared to a reference distribution of values generated under conditions of spatial randomness. RESULTS AIDS risk shows a marked spatial and temporal pattern. The disease incidence is related to socioeconomic variables at the municipal level in Rondônia, such as urbanization and human capital. The highest incidence rates of AIDS are in municipalities along the BR-364 highway and calculations of the Moran’s I test show positive spatial correlation associated with proximity of the municipality to the highway in the third and fourth periods (p = 0.05). CONCLUSIONS Incidence of the disease is higher in municipalities of greater economic wealth and urbanization, and in those municipalities bisected by Rondônia’s main roads. The rapid development associated with the opening up of once remote regions may be accompanied by an increase in these risks to health. .

OBJETIVO Analizar cambios espaciales en el riesgo de Sida y la relación entre incidencia de la enfermedad y variables socioeconómicas. MÉTODOS Estudio caso-control espacial, de base poblacional, realizado en Rondonia, Brasil con 1.780 casos notificados por el Sistema de Vigilancia Epidemiológica y los controles a partir de datos demográficos de 1987 a 2006. Los casos fueron agrupados en cinco períodos de cinco años consecutivos. Un modelo aditivo generalizado fue ajustado a los datos. El estatus de los individuos (caso o control) fue considerado como la variable dependiente e independiente: un alisamiento (spline) bidimensional de las coordenadas geográficas y variables socioeconómicas municipales. Los valores observados para la prueba Moran I fueron comparados con la distribución de referencia de los valores obtenidos en condiciones de aleatoriedad espacial. RESULTADOS El riesgo de Sida presentó patrón espacial y temporal marcado. La incidencia se asoció a indicadores socioeconómicos municipales, como urbanización y capital humano. Las mayores tasas de incidencia de Sida ocurrieron en municipios a lo largo de la carretera BR-364; los resultados de la prueba Moran I muestran correlación espacial positiva asociada a la cercanía de los municipios a la carretera, en el tercero y cuarto periodos (p=0,05). CONCLUSIONES La incidencia de la enfermedad fue mayor en municipios de mayor riqueza económica y urbanización y en aquellos atravesados por las carreteras principales de Rondonia. El rápido desarrollo asociado a la ocupación de regiones remotas puede ser acompañado por aumento de riesgos para la salud. .

OBJETIVO Analisar mudanças espaciais no risco de Aids e a relação entre incidência da doença e variáveis socioeconômicas. MÉTODOS Estudo caso-controle espacial, de base populacional, realizado em Rondônia, Brasil, com 1.780 casos notificados pelo Sistema de Vigilância Epidemiológica e os controles a partir de dados demográficos de 1987 a 2006. Os casos foram agrupados em cinco períodos de cinco anos consecutivos. Um modelo aditivo generalizado foi ajustado aos dados. O status dos indivíduos (caso ou controle) foi considerado como a variável dependente e independente: um alisamento ( spline ) bidimensional das coordenadas geográficas e variáveis socioeconômicas municipais. Os valores observados para o teste Moran I foram comparados com a distribuição de referência dos valores obtidos em condições de aleatoriedade espacial. RESULTADOS O risco de Aids apresentou padrão espacial e temporal marcado. A incidência associou-se a indicadores socioeconômicos municipais, como urbanização e capital humano. As maiores taxas de incidência de Aids ocorreram em municípios ao longo da rodovia BR-364; os resultados do teste Moran I mostram correlação espacial positiva associada à contiguidade dos municípios com a rodovia, no terceiro e quarto períodos (p = 0,05). CONCLUSÕES A incidência da doença foi maior em municípios de maior riqueza econômica e urbanização e naqueles cortados pelas estradas principais de Rondônia. O rápido desenvolvimento associado à ocupação de regiões remotas pode ser acompanhado por aumento de riscos à saúde. .

The AIDS epidemic in the Amazon region: a spatial case-control study in Rondonia, Brazil.

OBJECTIVE: To analyze spatial changes in the risk of AIDS and the relationship between AIDS incidence and socioeconomic variables in the state of Rondonia, Amazon region. METHODS: A spatial, population case-control study in Rondonia, Brazil, based on 1,780 cases reported to the Epidemiological Surveillance System and controls based on demographic data from 1987 to 2006. The cases were grouped into five consecutive four-year periods. A generalized additive model was adjusted to the data; the dependent variable was the status of the individuals (case or control), and the independent variables were a bi-dimensional spline of the geographic coordinates and some municipality-level socioeconomic variables. The observed values of the Moran's I test were compared to a reference distribution of values generated under conditions of spatial randomness. RESULTS: AIDS risk shows a marked spatial and temporal pattern. The disease incidence is related to socioeconomic variables at the municipal level in Rondônia, such as urbanization and human capital. The highest incidence rates of AIDS are in municipalities along the BR-364 highway and calculations of the Moran's I test show positive spatial correlation associated with proximity of the municipality to the highway in the third and fourth periods (p = 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Incidence of the disease is higher in municipalities of greater economic wealth and urbanization, and in those municipalities bisected by Rondônia's main roads. The rapid development associated with the opening up of once remote regions may be accompanied by an increase in these risks to health.

Geoprocessing applied to the assessment of environmental noise: a case study in the city of Sorocaba, São Paulo, Brazil.

Noise mapping has been used as an instrument for assessment of environmental noise, helping to support decision making on urban planning. In Brazil, urban noise is not yet recognized as a major environmental problem by the government. Besides, cities that have databases to drive acoustic simulations, making use of advanced noise mapping systems, are rare. This study sought an alternative method of noise mapping through the use of geoprocessing, which is feasible for the Brazilian reality and for other developing countries. The area chosen for the study was the central zone of the city of Sorocaba, located in São Paulo State, Brazil. The proposed method was effective in the spatial evaluation of equivalent sound pressure level. The results showed an urban area with high noise levels that exceed the legal standard, posing a threat to the welfare of the population.

[Analysis on the spatial-temporal distribution of dengue and larval infestation in the municipality of Tupã, State of São Paulo]. / Análise da distribuição espaço-temporal de dengue e da infestação larvária no município de Tupã, Estado de São Paulo.

INTRODUCTION: The dengue virus is transmitted by the bite of the mosquito Aedes aegypti and the current control program has not met the target of preventing its transmission. This study aimed to analyze the relationship between the spatial-temporal distribution of dengue cases and the larval indices in the municipality of Tupã between January 2004 and December 2007. METHODS: Larval indices were built up block by block and for the entire municipality. We used the cross-lagged correlation method to assess the correlation between dengue cases and larval indices. The kernel estimator was used for spatial analysis. RESULTS: The cross-lagged correlation between dengue cases and larval indices was significant. The kernel estimator maps of positive findings among recipients indicated heterogeneous distribution over the course of the study period. Over two years of transmission, the epidemic occurred in different regions. CONCLUSIONS: There was no evidence of a relationship between larval infestation and dengue occurrence. Incorporation of geoprocessing techniques and spatial analysis into the program, if used immediately after completion of activities, might contribute towards the control actions, thereby indicating spatial agglomerations of higher incidence.

Análise da distribuição espaço-temporal de dengue e da infestação larvária no município de Tupã, Estado de São Paulo / Analysis on the spatial-temporal distribution of dengue and larval infestation in the municipality of Tupã, State of São Paulo

INTRODUÇÃO: O vírus da dengue é transmitido pela picada do mosquito Aedes aegypti e, o atual programa de controle não atinge o objetivo de impedir sua transmissão. Este trabalho objetivou analisar a relação entre a distribuição espaço-temporal de casos de dengue e os indicadores larvários no município de Tupã, de janeiro de 2004 a dezembro de 2007. MÉTODOS: Foram construídos indicadores larvários por quarteirão e totalidade do município. Utilizou-se o método cross-lagged correlation para avaliar a correlação entre casos de dengue e indicadores larvários. Foi utilizado estimador kernel para análise espacial. RESULTADOS: A correlação cruzada defasada entre casos de dengue e indicadores larvários foi significativa. Os mapas do estimador Kernel da positividade de recipientes indicam uma distribuição heterogênea, ao longo do período estudado. Nos dois anos de transmissão, a epidemia ocorreu em diferentes regiões. CONCLUSÕES: Não ficou evidenciada relação espacial entre infestação larvária e ocorrência de dengue. A incorporação de técnicas de geoprocessamento e análise espacial no programa, desde que utilizados imediatamente após a realização das atividades, podem contribuir com as ações de controle, indicando os aglomerados espaciais de maior incidência.

INTRODUCTION: The dengue virus is transmitted by the bite of the mosquito Aedes aegypti and the current control program has not met the target of preventing its transmission. This study aimed to analyze the relationship between the spatial-temporal distribution of dengue cases and the larval indices in the municipality of Tupã between January 2004 and December 2007. METHODS: Larval indices were built up block by block and for the entire municipality. We used the cross-lagged correlation method to assess the correlation between dengue cases and larval indices. The kernel estimator was used for spatial analysis. RESULTS: The cross-lagged correlation between dengue cases and larval indices was significant. The kernel estimator maps of positive findings among recipients indicated heterogeneous distribution over the course of the study period. Over two years of transmission, the epidemic occurred in different regions. CONCLUSIONS: There was no evidence of a relationship between larval infestation and dengue occurrence. Incorporation of geoprocessing techniques and spatial analysis into the program, if used immediately after completion of activities, might contribute towards the control actions, thereby indicating spatial agglomerations of higher incidence.

[Public health risk maps using geostatistical methods]. / Mapeamento de áreas de risco à saúde pública por meio de métodos geoestatísticos.

The purpose of this paper was to demonstrate an application of geostatistical methods to public health risk maps through the identification of areas with elevated concentrations of heavy metals. The study focused on the element lead (Pb) from aerial transportation or loading of particles due to soil leaching in an area with major urban and industrial concentration in the Baixada Santista on the coastland of São Paulo State, Brazil. Maps with the spatial distribution of lead were produced using ordinary kriging; subsequently indicative kriging was performed to identify soil sites with contamination levels higher than the maximum acceptable level defined by the Sao Paulo State Environmental Control Agency. The resulting maps showed areas with increased probability of public health risk. The methodology proved to be a promising approach for decision-making related to health public policies and environmental planning.

Mapeamento de áreas de risco à saúde pública por meio de métodos geoestatísticos / Public health risk maps using geostatistical methods

Este trabalho tem por objetivo apresentar uma aplicação de métodos geoestatísticos na elaboração de mapas de risco à saúde pública, por meio da identificação de áreas com maior concentração de metais pesados. Foi escolhido o elemento chumbo (Pb), resultante do transporte aéreo ou do carregamento das partículas causado pela lixiviação do solo, em uma região com grande concentração urbana e industrial na Baixada Santista, São Paulo, Brasil. Elaboraram-se mapas das distribuições espaciais desse elemento por intermédio da krigagem ordinária; posteriormente, utilizando-se a krigagem indicativa, identificaram-se as áreas com valores de contaminação do solo superiores aos níveis máximos aceitáveis pelo órgão de controle ambiental do Estado de São Paulo, originando um mapeamento com áreas com maior probabilidade de risco à saúde pública. Os mapas resultantes mostraram-se ferramentas promissoras para auxiliar a tomada de decisão quanto a questões de políticas públicas relacionadas à saúde e ao planejamento ambiental.