Predictors of tobacco smoking abstinence among tuberculosis patients in South Africa.

This study examines predictors of smoking cessation in tuberculosis patients with high HIV co-infection rates in a South African primary care setting. Current smokers were randomly allocated to brief motivational interviewing (n = 205) or receipt of a brief message (n = 204). Multi-level logistic regression was performed to identify predictors of sustained 3- and 6-month abstinence and 7-day point prevalence abstinence (PPA) at 1 month, with the facility as a random effect. The intervention was ineffective among smokers with high nicotine-dependence at 1 month, but was effective for all smokers over longer periods. Higher baseline self-efficacy predicted the 1-month 7-day PPA, but not sustained abstinence. HIV-positive participants' odds of sustained abstinence were about three times higher than those of their HIV-negative counterparts. Results support a more intensive motivational intervention and/or coping skills' training to increase self-efficacy and abstinence rates. Tobacco cessation services can be introduced in tuberculosis services where high HIV co-infection rates occur.

Efficacy of brief motivational interviewing on smoking cessation at tuberculosis clinics in Tshwane, South Africa: a randomized controlled trial.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Tuberculosis (TB) patients who smoke risk adverse TB outcomes and other long-term health effects of smoking. This study aimed to determine the efficacy of brief motivational interviewing by lay health-care workers (LHCWs) in assisting TB patients to quit smoking. DESIGN: Multi-centre two-group parallel individual randomized controlled trial. SETTING: Six primary care tuberculosis clinics in a South African township. PARTICIPANTS: Newly diagnosed adult TB patients identified as current smokers were randomized to brief motivational interviewing by a LHCW (intervention group, n = 205) or brief smoking cessation advice from a TB nurse (control group, n = 204). MEASUREMENTS: The primary outcome was self-reported sustained 6-month smoking abstinence. Exhaled carbon monoxide (CO) testing was offered to about half the participants. Secondary outcomes were sustained abstinence at 3 months; 7-day point prevalence abstinence at 1, 3 and 6 months; and quit attempts. Allocation was concealed. Primary analysis relied on intention to treat. Multi-level analysis accounted for site heterogeneity of effect. FINDINGS: Self-reported 6-month sustained abstinence was 21.5% for the intervention group versus 9.3% for the control group [relative risk (RR) = 2.29, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 1.34, 3.92]. Biochemically verified 6-month sustained abstinence was also higher in the intervention group (RR 2.21, 95% CI = 1.08, 4.51) for the 166 participants who were offered carbon monoxide testing. Self-reported 3-month sustained abstinence was 25.4% for the intervention group and 12.8% for the control group (RR = 1.98, 95% CI = 1.24, 3.18). CONCLUSIONS: Motivational interviewing by lay counsellors to promote smoking cessation in tuberculosis patients in South Africa approximately doubled sustained smoking abstinence for at least 6 months compared with brief advice alone.

Tobacco use patterns in tuberculosis patients with high rates of human immunodeficiency virus co-infection in South Africa.

BACKGROUND: Tuberculosis (TB) patients who smoke tobacco are at an increased risk for adverse TB treatment outcomes. This study describes tobacco use patterns among newly diagnosed TB patients, their readiness to quit, and their beliefs about tobacco-related health effects in a high HIV-burden setting in South Africa. Socio-economic and demographic factors associated with smoking were also determined. METHODS: This was a cross-sectional analysis of baseline data collected for a smoking cessation study at six large tuberculosis clinics in a South African township (N = 1926). We collected information on current and past tobacco use, socio-economic and demographic status, beliefs regarding the harmful effects of smoking and quit behaviour, and motivation, using structured interviewer-administered questionnaires. TB- and HIV-related information was obtained from patient records. Data analysis entailed descriptive statistics, followed by multivariate logistic regression with backward elimination, adjusted for clustering by facility. RESULTS: Just over one fifth of respondents (21.8%, 420/1924) reported currently smoking tobacco (males 37.6%, females 4.6%). By contrast, only 1.8% (35/1918) of all respondents reported being past smokers. Of the current smokers, about half (51.8%, 211/407) had previously attempted to quit, mainly for health reasons. The majority of respondents (89.3%, 1675/1875) believed tobacco smoking was harmful for their health and smokers were highly motivated to quit (median score 9, interquartile range 7-10). Smoking was less common among female respondents (Odds Ratio [OR] 0.10, 95% Confidence Interval [CI] 0.06-0.19) and respondents who had completed high school (OR 0.57, 95% CI 0.39-0.84), but was more common among respondents who do occasional work (OR 2.82, 95% CI 1.58-5.02), respondents who to bed hungry regularly (OR 4.19, 95% CI 2.42-7.25), those who have an alcohol problem (OR 5.79, 95% CI 3.24-10.34) and those who use illicit substances (OR 10.81, 95% CI 4.62-25.3). CONCLUSIONS: Despite documented evidence of its harmful effects, smoking is prevalent among male TB patients in this high HIV-prevalence population. Few patients have managed to quit smoking on their own. However, patients are highly motivated to stop smoking. We recommend implementing and evaluating a smoking cessation programme in tandem with TB services.

Water pipe and smokeless tobacco use among medical students in South Africa.

INTRODUCTION: This study sought to determine the sociodemographic and behavioral factors associated with water pipe and smokeless tobacco (SLT) use among a population of medical students in the Pretoria area, South Africa. METHODS: Undergraduate medical students (N = 722) in their 2nd and 6th year of study in 2 medical schools in South Africa completed a self-administered questionnaire during 2008. Information on ever and current use of water pipe and SLT was obtained along with information on sociodemographic variables, alcohol use, and cigarette smoking status. Multiple logistic regression analysis were used to determine factors associated with current use of water pipe and SLT. RESULTS: The mean age of study participants was 23 years. Of the participants, 53% were female and 55% were self-identified as Black Africans. Of the study participants, 18.6% were current water pipe users, 3.1% were current SLT users, while 17.3% were current cigarette smokers. Factors independently associated with current water pipe use were having an alcohol drinking-problem (odds ratio [OR] = 2.43; 95% CI = 1.48-3.40), currently smoking cigarettes (3.40; 2.04-5.67), and reporting exposure to smoking in places other than home (2.51; 1.29-4.90). Compared with Black students, White medical students were more likely to have smoked a water pipe in the past month (3.14; 1.74-5.70) but less likely to have ever used SLT (0.37; 0.19-0.73). CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest that the use of alternative tobacco products is common among South African medical students and may form part of a pattern of risk-taking behavior. Furthermore, there appear to be cultural differences in the use of certain tobacco products.

Effectiveness of antiretroviral treatment in a South African program: a cohort study.

BACKGROUND: The effectiveness of the South African government's expanding antiretroviral treatment program is unknown. Observational studies of treatment effectiveness are prone to selection bias, rarely compare patients receiving antiretroviral treatment with similar patients not receiving antiretroviral treatment, and underestimate mortality rates unless patients are actively followed up. METHODS: We followed up 14 267 patients in the Public Sector Anti-Retroviral Treatment project in Free State, South Africa, for up to 20 months after enrollment. A total of 3619 patients received highly active triple antiretroviral treatment (HAART) for up to 19 months (median, 6 months; interquartile range, 3-9 months) after enrollment. Patients' clinical data were linked with the national mortality register. Marginal structural regression models adjusted for baseline and time-varying covariates. RESULTS: Of 4570 patients followed up for at least 1 year, 53.2% died. Eighty-seven percent of patients who died had not received HAART. HAART was associated with lower mortality (hazard ratio, 0.14; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.11-0.18) and with the presence of tuberculosis (hazard ratio, 0.61; 95% CI, 0.46-0.81) after adjusting for age, sex, weight, clinic, district, CD4 cell count, cotrimoxazole therapy, tuberculosis at baseline, and previous antiretroviral therapy. Cotrimoxazole therapy was associated with lower mortality (hazard ratio, 0.37; 95% CI, 0.32-0.42). Each month of HAART was associated with an increase in CD4 cell count of 15.1 cells/microL (95% CI, 14.7-15.5 cells/microL) and with an increase in body weight of 602 g (95% CI, 548-658 g). CONCLUSIONS: HAART provided through these South African government health services seems as effective as that provided in high-income countries. Delays starting HAART contributed to high mortality rates. Faster expansion and timely commencement of HAART are needed.