The anthelmintic efficacy of natural plant cysteine proteinases against the equine tapeworm, Anoplocephala perfoliata in vitro.

Papaya latex has been demonstrated to be an efficacious anthelmintic against murine, porcine, ovine and canine nematode parasites, and even those infecting poultry, and it has some efficacy against rodent cestodes. The active ingredients of papaya latex are known to be cysteine proteinases (CPs). The experiments described in this paper indicate that CPs in papaya latex, and also those in pineapples, are highly efficacious against the equine cestode Anoplocephala perfoliata in vitro, by causing a significant reduction in motility leading to death of the worms. The susceptibility of A. perfoliata to damage by CPs was considerably greater than that of the rodent cestodes Hymenolepis diminuta and H. microstoma. Our results are the first to report anthelmintic efficacy of CPs against an economically important equine helminth. Moreover, they provide further evidence that the spectrum of activity of CPs is not restricted to nematodes and support the idea that these plant-derived enzymes can be developed into useful broad-spectrum anthelmintics.

Nematicidal effects of cysteine proteinases against sedentary plant parasitic nematodes.

Cysteine proteinases from the fruit and latex of plants, such as papaya, pineapple and fig, have previously been shown to have substantial anthelmintic efficacy, in vitro and in vivo, against a range of animal parasitic nematodes. In this paper, we describe the in vitro effects of these plant extracts against 2 sedentary plant parasitic nematodes of the genera Meloidogyne and Globodera. All the plant extracts examined caused digestion of the cuticle and decreased the activity of the tested nematodes. The specific inhibitor of cysteine proteinases, E-64, blocked this activity completely, indicating that it was essentially mediated by cysteine proteinases. In vitro, plant cysteine proteinases are active against second-stage juveniles of M. incognita and M. javanica, and some cysteine proteinases also affect the second-stage juveniles of Globodera rostochiensis. It is not known yet whether these plant extracts will interfere with, or prevent invasion of, host plants.

The anthelmintic efficacy of plant-derived cysteine proteinases against the rodent gastrointestinal nematode, Heligmosomoides polygyrus, in vivo.

Gastrointestinal (GI) nematodes are important disease-causing organisms, controlled primarily through treatment with synthetic drugs, but the efficacy of these drugs has declined due to widespread resistance, and hence new drugs, with different modes of action, are required. Some medicinal plants, used traditionally for the treatment of worm infections, contain cysteine proteinases known to damage worms irreversibly in vitro. Here we (i) confirm that papaya latex has marked efficacy in vivo against the rodent gastrointestinal nematode, Heligmosomoides polygyrus, (ii) demonstrate the dose-dependent nature of the activity (>90% reduction in egg output and 80% reduction in worm burden at the highest active enzyme concentration of 133 nmol), (iii) establish unequivocally that it is the cysteine proteinases that are the active principles in vivo (complete inhibition of enzyme activity when pre-incubated with the cysteine proteinase-specific inhibitor, E-64) and (iv) show that activity is confined to worms that are in the intestinal lumen. The mechanism of action was distinct from all current synthetic anthelmintics, and was the same as that in vitro, with the enzymes attacking and digesting the protective cuticle. Treatment had no detectable side-effects on immune cell numbers in the mucosa (there was no difference in the numbers of mast cells and goblet cells between the treated groups) and mucosal architecture (length of intestinal villi). Only the infected and untreated mice had much shorter villi than the other 3 groups, which was a consequence of infection and not treatment. Plant-derived cysteine proteinases are therefore prime candidates for development as novel drugs for the treatment of GI nematode infections.

Anthelmintic action of plant cysteine proteinases against the rodent stomach nematode, Protospirura muricola, in vitro and in vivo.

Cysteine proteinases from the fruit and latex of plants, including papaya, pineapple and fig, were previously shown to have a rapid detrimental effect, in vitro, against the rodent gastrointestinal nematodes, Heligmosomoides polygyrus (which is found in the anterior small intestine) and Trichuris muris (which resides in the caecum). Proteinases in the crude latex of papaya also showed anthelmintic efficacy against both nematodes in vivo. In this paper, we describe the in vitro and in vivo effects of these plant extracts against the rodent nematode, Protospirura muricola, which is found in the stomach. As in earlier work, all the plant cysteine proteinases examined, with the exception of actinidain from the juice of kiwi fruit, caused rapid loss of motility and digestion of the cuticle, leading to death of the nematode in vitro. In vivo, in contrast to the efficacy against H. polygyrus and T. muris, papaya latex only showed efficacy against P. muricola adult female worms when the stomach acidity had been neutralized prior to administration of papaya latex. Therefore, collectively, our studies have demonstrated that, with the appropriate formulation, plant cysteine proteinases have efficacy against nematodes residing throughout the rodent gastrointestinal tract.

In vitro and in vivo anthelmintic efficacy of plant cysteine proteinases against the rodent gastrointestinal nematode, Trichuris muris.

Extracts of plants, such as papaya, pineapple and fig, are known to be effective at killing intestinal nematodes that inhabit anterior sites in the small intestine, such as Heligmosomoides polygyrus. In this paper, we demonstrate that similar in vitro efficacy also occurs against a rodent nematode of the large intestine, Trichuris muris, and confirm that the cysteine proteinases present in the plant extracts are the active principles. The mechanism of action of these enzymes involved an attack on the structural proteins of the nematode cuticle, which was similar to that observed with H. polygyrus. However, not all plant cysteine proteinases were equally efficacious because actinidain, from the juice of kiwi fruit, had no detrimental effect on either the motility of the worms or the nematode cuticle. Papaya latex was also shown to significantly reduce both worm burden and egg output of mice infected with adult T. muris, demonstrating that enzyme activity survived passage to the caecum and was not completely inactivated by the acidity of the host's stomach or destroyed by the gastric or pancreatic proteinases. Thus, the cysteine proteinases from plants may be a much-needed alternative to currently available anthelmintic drugs due to their efficacy and novel mode of action against different gastrointestinal nematode species.