Pneumonia Mortality Trends in Children under 5 Years of Age in the Context of Pneumococcal Conjugate Vaccination in Peru, 2003-2017.

Worldwide, conjugated pneumococcal vaccines (PCVs) have proven effective against invasive pneumococcal disease, but non-invasive pneumonia is a major cause of mortality in young children and serotypes vary geographically, affecting effectiveness. We analyze nationwide death certificate data between 2003-2017 to assess the impact of PCVs on pneumonia mortality among young children from Peru. We report descriptive statistics and perform timeseries analysis on annual mortality rates (AMRs) and monthly frequencies of pneumonia deaths. Children under 5 years of age accounted for 6.2% (n = 10,408) of all pneumonia deaths (N = 166,844), and 32.3% (n = 3363) were children between 1-4 years of age, of which 95.1% did not report pneumonia etiology. Comparing periods before and after PCV introduction in 2009, mean AMRs dropped 13.5% and 26.0% for children between 1-4 years of age (toddlers/preschoolers), and children under 1 year of age (infants), respectively. A moderate correlation (Spearman's r = 0.546, p < 0.01) in the monthly frequency of pneumonia deaths was estimated between both age groups. Quadratic regression suggests a change in direction around 2005 (highest pneumonia mortality) for both age groups, but percentage change analysis identified an inflection point in 2013 for infants only, not for toddlers/preschoolers, suggesting that the impact of PCVs might be different for each age group.

Infant mortality rates and pneumococcal vaccines: a time-series trend analysis in 194 countries, 1950-2020.

Pneumonia due to Streptococcus pneumoniae (pneumococcus) is a major cause of mortality in infants (children under 1 year of age), and pneumococcal conjugate vaccines (PCVs), delivered during the first year of life, are available since the year 2000. Given those two premises, the conclusion follows logically that favourable impact reported for PCVs in preventing pneumococcal disease should be reflected in the infant mortality rates (IMRs) from all causes. Using publicly available datasets, country-level IMR estimates from UNICEF and PCV introduction status from WHO, country-specific time series analysed the temporal relationship between annual IMRs and the introduction of PCVs, providing a unique context into the long-term secular trends of IMRs in countries that included and countries that did not include PCVs in their national immunisation programmes. PCV status was available for 194 countries during the period 1950-2020: 150 (77.3%) of these countries achieved nationwide PCV coverage at some point after the year 2000, 13 (6.7%) achieved only partial or temporary PCV coverage, and 31 (15.9%) never introduced PCVs to their population. One hundred and thirty-nine (92.7%) of countries that reported a decreasing (negative) trend in IMR, also reported a strong correlation with decreasing maternal mortality rates (MMRs), suggesting an improvement in overall child/mother healthcare. Conversely, all but one of the countries that never introduced PCVs in their national immunisation programme also reported a decreasing trend in IMR that strongly correlates with MMRs. IMRs have been decreasing for decades all over the world, but this latest decrease may not be related to PCVs.

Herd immunity in older adults from a middle-income country: A time-series trend analysis of community-acquired pneumonia mortality 2003-2017.

Background and Aims: Community-acquired pneumonia is responsible for substantial mortality, and pneumococcus is commonly accepted as a major cause of pneumonia, regardless of laboratory confirmation. Child immunization programs have reported success in decreasing pneumonia mortality: directly in young children and indirectly (herd immunity) in unvaccinated adult populations in some countries. We assess changes in mortality trends for all-cause pneumonia in older adults associated with the introduction of pneumococcal vaccination for children in Peru. Methods: This is a secondary analysis on administrative data collected periodically by the Peruvian Ministry of Health. An observational retrospective time series analysis was conducted using longitudinal population-based data from death certificates in Peru between 2003 and 2017. The time series includes 6 years before and 9 years after the introduction of the pneumococcal-conjugated vaccines in the national child immunization program in 2009. Monthly frequencies and annual rates for all-cause pneumonia deaths in children under 5 years of age and adults over 65 years of age are presented. Linear and quadratic trends are analyzed. Results: Deaths among older adults accounted for 75.6% of all-cause pneumonia mortality in Peru, with 94.4% of these reporting "pneumonia due to unspecified organism" as the underlying cause of death. Comparing pre- and post-child immunization program periods, annual average mortality rates from unspecified pneumonia decreased by 22.7% in young children but increased by 19.6% in older adults. A linear trend model supports this overall tendency, but a quadratic curve explains the data better. Conclusion: Pneumococcal-conjugated vaccines are developed using serotypes prevalent in selected countries from less common (invasive) pneumococcal disease and expected to prevent mortality worldwide from widespread (noninvasive) pneumonia. Our results do not support the presence of herd immunity from pneumococcal vaccination of children for community-acquired pneumonia in the increasingly ageing population of Peru. This should direct future research and could influence public health policy.

Association between the risk perception of contracting COVID-19 and sociodemographic characteristics in a Peruvian population.

Background: The perception of risk regarding coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has been widely researched due to its association with the adoption of preventive measures. In addition, since the onset of vaccination, it has been reported that the population perceives a lower risk of getting infected. However, few studies have analyzed the factors associated with risk perception in low- and middle-income countries. The aim of this study was to determine the association between the risk perception of contracting COVID-19 and sociodemographic characteristics in Peruvian population. Methods: An analytical and cross-sectional study was conducted in four cities in Peru from October to December, 2021. The sample consisted of 821 individuals aged 18 years and older. A virtual questionnaire was used to collect sociodemographic data and assess the risk perception of contracting coronavirus based on the Health Belief Model. The process of back-translation, expert judgment, and reliability analysis using split-half correlation was conducted. Student's t-tests, analysis of variance with post hoc Tukey's test, and Spearman's correlation were employed. Results: Of the participants, 53.71% were women and 73.3% had a higher education level, 45.55% are self-employed, and 40.44% did not have a family member infected with COVID-19. The risk perception of COVID-19 infection was associated with participants' family antecedent of COVID-19 (p < 0.05). Regarding the factors analyzed, perceived susceptibility to COVID-19 was associated with age (p=0.002), occupation (p<0.05), and a history of COVID-19 (p<0.05), while the perceived benefits of adopting preventive measures against this disease were associated with educational level (p < 0.001). Conclusions: The risk perception of contracting COVID-19 was higher among whose had multiple infected relatives.. Furthermore, the perception of susceptibility and the perceived benefits of using preventive measures were associated with sociodemographic characteristics.

Poverty, Household Structure and Consumption of Foods Away from Home in Peru in 2019: A Cross-Sectional Study.

The aim of this study was to evaluate the probability of buying food away from home according to the type of household using the logit model, as well as the sociodemographic characteristics of the heads of household, and how much income expenditure represents. A cross-sectional study was carried out using the National Household Survey (ENAHO) 2019 database. After joining the database, the household type variables were created. To calculate the probability with the "logit" model of purchase, the variables­family size, income, types of household, and total expenditure­were selected as a measure of the purchasing power of the family. A statistically significant association (p < 0.05) was found between the probability of consumption and the variables: age of household members, predominance, nuclear without children−married, nuclear with children−cohabitant, nuclear with children−widowed, nuclear with children−separated, extended, compounded, poor not extreme, and not poor. The bulk of families was represented by nuclear families (61.97%). The highest expenditure in the CFAH was for families defined as composite with a yearly average of USD 1652.89 (equivalent to PEN 5520.67). Observing the expenditure on food consumed outside the home through the composition of households can allow a better approach to offer educational measures. This information can be helpful to developers of educational issues.

The effects of telenutrition in overweight and obese adults in a nutritional center in Lima, Peru.

Background: COVID-19 pandemic has been challenging for health services and systems around the world, including Peru.  A viable alternative in the telemedicine field to guarantee patient nutritional care is telenutrition. Telenutrition involves the interactive use of electronic information and telecommunications technologies to implement the nutrition care process with patients at a remote location. Information regarding the experience with this methodology and its potential effect on patients' nutritional goals, does not exist in Peru. The aim of the study was to report the effect of the evaluation type (telenutrition vs. in-person) on anthropometric parameters weight, body mass index (BMI), waist circumference (WC) and relative fat mass (RFM) in overweight and obese adult patients.  Methods: This retrospective study included 100 eligible patients in a single nutritional center, from January 2019 to March 2021.  Results: There was a significant difference in weight, BMI, WC and RFM at the end of the three-month follow-up period, in both evaluation modalities. Patients on the telenutrition group had a mean decrease of 6.80 ± 4.87 cm in their WC, whereas the mean difference observed for the in-person group was 6.74 ± 4.55 cm. There were no statistically significant differences in the changes of any anthropometric parameters when comparing both systems. Reductions were observed in weight (5.93 ± 3.88 kg vs. 4.92 ± 3.29 kg), BMI (2.23 ± 1.39 kg/ m2 vs. 1.83 ± 1.23 kg/ m2), WC (6.80 ± 4.87 cm vs. 6.74 ± 4.55 cm) and RFM (2.43 ± 1.78 vs. 2.63 ± 1.73) in telenutrition and in-person evaluation, respectively.  Conclusions: Telenutrition may be regarded as an alternative to in-person evaluation offering anthropometric changes and nutritional goals similar to those reported through the in-person modality, in overweight and obese adult people.

Clinical characteristics and sociodemographic factors associated with COVID-19 infection in pregnant women in a maternal and children's public hospital. / Características clínicas y factores sociodemográficos asociados a infección por COVID-19 en gestantes de un hospital público materno infantil.

OBJECTIVE: To describe the clinical characteristics and sociodemographic factors associated with COVID-19 among pregnant women in a maternal and children's hospital in Lima, Peru. METHODS: Quantitative observational study. The population under study consisted of pregnant women who attended an emergency room and had a COVID-19 test. These women were assessed for age, gestational age, place of origin, occupation, education, marital status, number of children, previous body mass index, gestational body mass index, tetanus vaccination, prenatal controls, and hemoglobin. After bivariate analysis, a generalized linear regression model was applied. RESULTS: We included 200 women aged between 18 and 34 years (84.5%) with a median gestational age of 36 weeks. More than half were from Lima (52.5%), most were housewives (79%), had high school education (71.9%), and had a cohabiting marital status (60%). The COVID-19 test positivity was 31.5% by rapid tests. Pregestational body mass index assessment showed that 36.7% of normal weight, 38,1% of overweight, and 30.3% of obese pregnant women had COVID-19 infection. 39.7% of patients with hemoglobin levels greater than or equal to 11 g/dL, 21.2% of patients with values between 10 and 10.9 g/dL, and 20% of patients with values between 7 and 9.9 g/dL had COVID-19 infection. The prevalence ratio (with a 95% confidence interval) found that cohabitation was associated with a lower risk of having COVID-19 infection in pregnant women (prevalence ratio: 0.41, p < 0.001). CONCLUSION: Cohabiting pregnant women had a lower risk of COVID-19 infection compared with other marital statuses. Further research is needed to evaluate COVID-19 associated factors in pregnant women and possible sociodemographic or economic factors behind cohabiting marital status association among this population.

OBJETIVO: Describir las características clínicas y factores sociodemográficos asociados a COVID-19 en gestantes de un hospital materno infantil de Lima, Perú. MÉTODO: Estudio cuantitativo observacional. La población estuvo compuesta por gestantes atendidas en la unidad de emergencia, con la prueba para el diagnóstico de COVID-19. A las madres se les valoró edad, edad gestacional, lugar de procedencia, ocupación, nivel de estudios, estado civil, número de hijos, índice de masa corporal previa, índice de masa corporal de la gestación, vacuna antitetánica, controles prenatales, y hemoglobina. Después de un análisis bivariado se aplicó un modelo de regresión lineal generalizado. RESULTADOS: Incluimos a 200 mujeres, con edades de 18 a 34 años (84,5%). Más de la mitad procedía de Lima (52,5%), 79% tenía como ocupación el ser ama de casa, 71,9% alcanzó estudios secundarios y 60% registró estado civil de conviviente. La incidencia de COVID-19 fue de 31,5% mediante pruebas rápidas. La mediana de edad gestacional al momento de la evaluación para COVID-19 fue de 36 semanas. El índice de masa corporal pregestacional, comparado entre las gestantes con COVID-19 y las que no lo tuvieron, fue normal en 36,7 y 63,3%. Se detectó sobrepeso en 38,1 y 61,9% de las pacientes, obesidad en 30,3 y 69,7%, respectivamente. Los niveles de hemoglobina superiores o iguales a 11 gramos por decilitro se reportaron en 39,7 y 60,3% en cada grupo; hemoglobina entre 10 y 10,9 gramos por decilitro, en 21,2 y 78,8%; y hemoglobina entre 7 y 9,9 gramos por decilitro, en 20 y 80%, respectivamente. La razón de prevalencia con un intervalo de confianza al 95%, identificó al estado civil conviviente asociado a menor riesgo de tener COVID-19 en gestantes (razón de prevalencia: 0,41, valor p < 0,001). CONCLUSIÓN: Las gestantes cuyo estado civil fue de conviviente presentaron menor riesgo de experimentar COVID-19. Es necesario seguir estudiando los factores que se asocian a la presencia de COVID-19 en gestantes, así como posibles factores sociodemográficos o económicos detrás del estado civil conviviente.

[Associated Factors to non-use of Formal Health Services in the Peruvian Population: Analysis of the National Household Survey (ENAHO) 2015]. / Factores asociados a la no utilización de los servicios formales de prestación en salud en la población peruana: análisis de la encuesta nacional de hogares (ENAHO) 2015.

The aim of the study was to estimate the prevalence of non-use of health services (NUHS) and its associated factors using the National Household Survey (ENAHO 2015). The participants were defined as NUHS if they have presented any symptoms, discomfort, illness, relapse of chronic illness or accident during the last month and did not go to the health services. 35036 participants were analyzed; the prevalence of NUHS was 53,9%. NUHS was higher in the coastal region (adjusted Prevalence Ratio [aPR]=1.24;95%CI:1.17-1.31), highlands (aPR=1.38; 95%CI: 1.31-1.46) and jungle (aPR=1.25,95%CI:1.18-1.33) compared to Lima. Likewise, there were a higher prevalence of NUHS in participants without health insurance (aPR=1.59;95%CI:1.52-1.66) and those affiliated to Ministry of Health insurance (aPR=1.16;95%CI:1.11-1.22) compared to those affiliated to Social Security. More than half of the participants suffered from NUHS, which was associated with geographical and health system conditions. It is required evidenced-informed public policies to improve this situation.

El objetivo del estudio fue estimar la prevalencia de la no utilización de los servicios formales de prestación de salud (NUSFPS) y sus factores asociados en Perú. Se realizó un análisis secundario de datos de la Encuesta Nacional de Hogares (ENAHO) del año 2015. Se definió como NUSFPS a aquellos participantes que, pese a haber presentado algún síntoma, malestar, enfermedad, recaída de enfermedad crónica o accidente durante el último mes, no acudieron a los servicios de salud. Se analizaron 35 036 participantes; la prevalencia de NUSFPS fue de 53,9% (IC95%:52,9-54,8). La NUSFPS fue superior en la costa (razón de prevalencia ajustada [RPa] = 1,24;IC95%:1,17-1,31), sierra (RPa =1,38;IC95%:1,31-1,46) y selva (RP = 1,25;IC95%:1,181,33) en comparación a Lima Metropolitana. Hubo mayor prevalencia de NUSFPS en los participantes sinseguro (RPa = 1,59; IC95%: 1,52-1,66) y afiliados al seguro integral de salud (RPa = 1,16; IC95%: 1,11-1,22) comparados con los afiliados a la Seguridad Social. En conclusión, más de la mitad de los participantes padecieron NUSFPS, lo cual se asoció con condiciones geográficas y de aseguramiento. Se sugieren políticas públicas informadas en la evidencia para mejorar esta situación.

Factores asociados a la no utilización de los servicios formales de prestación en salud en la población peruana: análisis de la encuesta nacional de hogares (ENAHO) 2015 / Associated Factors to non-use of Formal Health Services in the Peruvian Population: Analysis of the National Household Survey (ENAHO) 2015

RESUMEN El objetivo del estudio fue estimar la prevalencia de la no utilización de los servicios formales de prestación de salud (NUSFPS) y sus factores asociados en Perú. Se realizó un análisis secundario de datos de la Encuesta Nacional de Hogares (ENAHO) del año 2015. Se definió como NUSFPS a aquellos participantes que, pese a haber presentado algún síntoma, malestar, enfermedad, recaída de enfermedad crónica o accidente durante el último mes, no acudieron a los servicios de salud. Se analizaron 35 036 participantes; la prevalencia de NUSFPS fue de 53,9% (IC95%:52,9-54,8). La NUSFPS fue superior en la costa (razón de prevalencia ajustada [RPa] = 1,24;IC95%:1,17-1,31), sierra (RPa =1,38;IC95%:1,31-1,46) y selva (RP = 1,25;IC95%:1,181,33) en comparación a Lima Metropolitana. Hubo mayor prevalencia de NUSFPS en los participantes sinseguro (RPa = 1,59; IC95%: 1,52-1,66) y afiliados al seguro integral de salud (RPa = 1,16; IC95%: 1,11-1,22) comparados con los afiliados a la Seguridad Social. En conclusión, más de la mitad de los participantes padecieron NUSFPS, lo cual se asoció con condiciones geográficas y de aseguramiento. Se sugieren políticas públicas informadas en la evidencia para mejorar esta situación.

ABSTRACT The aim of the study was to estimate the prevalence of non-use of health services (NUHS) and its associated factors using the National Household Survey (ENAHO 2015). The participants were defined as NUHS if they have presented any symptoms, discomfort, illness, relapse of chronic illness or accident during the last month and did not go to the health services. 35036 participants were analyzed; the prevalence of NUHS was 53,9%. NUHS was higher in the coastal region (adjusted Prevalence Ratio [aPR]=1.24;95%CI:1.17-1.31), highlands (aPR=1.38; 95%CI: 1.31-1.46) and jungle (aPR=1.25,95%CI:1.18-1.33) compared to Lima. Likewise, there were a higher prevalence of NUHS in participants without health insurance (aPR=1.59;95%CI:1.52-1.66) and those affiliated to Ministry of Health insurance (aPR=1.16;95%CI:1.11-1.22) compared to those affiliated to Social Security. More than half of the participants suffered from NUHS, which was associated with geographical and health system conditions. It is required evidenced-informed public policies to improve this situation.

[Challenges to decentralization and local participation within the health rights protection framework: Experience of the SUSALUD Northern Macro-regional Intendance]. / Desafíos de la desconcentración y participación local en el marco de la protección de los derechos en salud: Experiencia de la Intendencia Macrorregional Norte, SUSALUD.

In Peru, health protection rights and the National Health Authority (SUSALUD) coexist with the aim to ensure that every Peruvian may exercise his/her rights. According to the L.D. (Spanish: Decreto legislativo) N° 1158, strategies must be deployed to ensure effective decentralization and ensure compliance with user rights. As a result, the Northern Macro-regional Intendance (IMRN) was created, with headquarters in the city of Chiclayo, and a coverage area including Lambayeque, Tumbes, Piura, Cajamarca, La Libertad, and Amazonas. The northern macro-region promotes information dissemination, coordination, and local participation in health activities, with an emphasis on handling complaints and claims as well as implementation and operation support of user boards (JUS). After 6 months, implementation of the IMRN experience is undergoing consolidation.

[Information technologies intended to solve contingencies in the Peruvian subsidized health system affiliation: "Resuelve tu afiliación"]. / Tecnologías de la información para resolver contingencias en la afiliación al régimen subsidiado de salud en Perú: "Resuelve tu afiliación".

The National Health Authority (SUSALUD) has developed an online platform, "ReSUelve tu afiliación", with the intent to solve the problems with health service access experienced by Peruvian citizens who hold health insurance policies through institutions that manage health insurance funds (IAFAS). This platform virtually articulates the main IAFAS in Peru, which receives requests from any user requiring an update on his/her affiliation status to be resolved within 24 hours. Nearly 8 months after the implementation of this platform, more than 55 thousand applications have been resolved, thus ensuring timely access to health services under the corresponding user coverage form. As a result, this platform has helped to guarantee citizens' rights to health service access in the face of infringement caused by delays in affiliation processing among the different IAFAS in Peru.

Tecnologías de la información para resolver contingencias en la afiliación al régimen subsidiado de salud en Perú: "Resuelve tu afiliación" / Information technologies intended to solve contingencies in the Peruvian subsidized health system affiliation: "Resuelve tu afiliación"

RESUMEN La Superintendencia Nacional de Salud (SUSALUD) ha desarrollado la plataforma en línea: "ReSUelve tu afiliación" con el propósito de solucionar problemas de acceso a los servicios de salud de los ciudadanos peruanos que cuentan con un seguro de salud en las instituciones administradoras de fondos de aseguramiento en salud (IAFAS). Esta plataforma articula virtualmente a las principales IAFAS en Perú, las cuales reciben solicitudes de cualquier usuario que requiera actualización del estado de su filiación, para resolverlas en menos de 24 h. En casi ocho meses de implementación se han resuelto más de 55 mil solicitudes, con lo cual se ha logrado que los usuarios accedan de forma oportuna a los servicios de salud bajo la cobertura correspondiente. De esta manera, se contribuye a garantizar el derecho al acceso a los servicios de salud, derecho que se veía vulnerado por los retrasos en los trámites de afiliación entre las diferentes IAFAS del país.

ABSTRACT The National Health Authority (SUSALUD) has developed an online platform, "ReSUelve tu afiliación", with the intent to solve the problems with health service access experienced by Peruvian citizens who hold health insurance policies through institutions that manage health insurance funds (IAFAS). This platform virtually articulates the main IAFAS in Peru, which receives requests from any user requiring an update on his/her affiliation status to be resolved within 24 hours. Nearly 8 months after the implementation of this platform, more than 55 thousand applications have been resolved, thus ensuring timely access to health services under the corresponding user coverage form. As a result, this platform has helped to guarantee citizens' rights to health service access in the face of infringement caused by delays in affiliation processing among the different IAFAS in Peru.

Desafíos de la desconcentración y participación local en el marco de la protección de los derechos en salud: Experiencia de la Intendencia Macrorregional Norte, SUSALUD / Challenges to decentralization and local participation within the health rights protection framework: Experience of the SUSALUD Northern Macro-regional Intendance

RESUMEN En el Perú, la protección de los derechos en salud y la Superintendencia Nacional de Salud (SUSALUD) coexisten con la finalidad de que cada peruano ejerza sus derechos. Según el D.L. 1158, velar por el cumplimiento de los derechos de los usuarios requiere desplegar estrategias de desconcentración efectivas, así se crea la Intendencia Macro Regional Norte (IMRN), con sede en la ciudad de Chiclayo, que abarca Lambayeque, Tumbes, Piura, Cajamarca, La Libertad y Amazonas. En la macrorregión norte se realizan actividades de información, coordinación y participación local en salud, con énfasis en la atención de quejas y reclamos, así como la implementación y apoyo en el funcionamiento de juntas de usuarios (JUS). Luego de seis meses, la experiencia de la implementación de la IMRN se encuentra en proceso de consolidación.

ABSTRACT In Peru, health protection rights and the National Health Authority (SUSALUD) coexist with the aim to ensure that every Peruvian may exercise his/her rights. According to the L.D. (Spanish: Decreto legislativo) N° 1158, strategies must be deployed to ensure effective decentralization and ensure compliance with user rights. As a result, the Northern Macro-regional Intendance (IMRN) was created, with headquarters in the city of Chiclayo, and a coverage area including Lambayeque, Tumbes, Piura, Cajamarca, La Libertad, and Amazonas. The northern macro-region promotes information dissemination, coordination, and local participation in health activities, with an emphasis on handling complaints and claims as well as implementation and operation support of user boards (JUS). After 6 months, implementation of the IMRN experience is undergoing consolidation.