Biosecurity measures in European beekeeping.

Emerging pathogens of honey bees represent an important threat to the development of the beekeeping sector. The implementation of biosecurity measures in beekeeping (BMBs) plays an essential role in supporting honey bee health within the beekeeping sector. A group of experts, in collaboration with the BPRACTICES (Grant Agreement No. 696231, European Research Area on Sustainable Animal Production Systems [ERA-Net SusAn]) project partners, has provided the definition of BMBs. Thus, BMBs are all those operational activities implemented to control the risk of introduction and spread of specific honey bee disease agents. In this paper, the BMBs in the European beekeeping context are identified for the most relevant honey bee diseases in Europe: varroosis, American foulbrood (AFB), European foulbrood (EFB), nosemosis and aethinosis. Moreover, BMBs were classified in â€Ëœcategories' adapted to consider productivity and the â€ËœOne Health' approach: human health, honey bee health and protection of the environment. The 84 BMBs described by the panel of experts were ranked according to the priority score attributed. The implementation of BMBs represents an essential step forwards to increase the resilience and sustainability of European beekeeping.

L'émergence de nouveaux agents pathogènes chez les abeilles mellifères représente une menace importante pour le développement du secteur apicole. La mise en oeuvre de mesures de biosécurité en apiculture est déterminante pour préserver la santé des abeilles mellifères dans les élevages. En collaboration avec des partenaires du projet BPRACTICES (convention de subvention n° 696231, programme ERA-Net SusAn [European Research Area on Sustainable Animal Production Systems]), un groupe d'experts a élaboré un cadre définissant ces mesures de biosécurité. Sont définies comme mesures de biosécurité en apiculture toutes les activités opérationnelles mises en oeuvre pour contrôler le risque d'introduction et de propagation d'agents pathogènes affectant spécifiquement les abeilles mellifères. Les auteurs décrivent les mesures de biosécurité applicables, dans le contexte apicole européen, aux maladies les plus importantes en Europe : la varroose, la loque américaine, la loque européenne, la nosémose et l'infestation par Aethina tumida. En outre, les mesures de biosécurité en apiculture ont été regroupées en « catégories ¼ afin de prendre en compte la productivité et l'approche « Une seule santé ¼ : santé humaine, santé des abeilles mellifères et protection de l'environnement. Les 84 mesures de biosécurité en apiculture décrites par le groupe d'experts ont été classées en fonction du niveau de priorité qui leur a été attribué. La mise en oeuvre de ces mesures représente une étape cruciale pour accroître la résilience et la durabilité de l'apiculture européenne.

Los agentes patógenos emergentes que afectan a la abeja melífera suponen una importante amenaza para el desarrollo del sector apícola. La aplicación de medidas de seguridad biológica dentro de este sector cumple una función esencial para proteger la salud de las abejas. En colaboración con asociados en el proyecto BPRACTICES (acuerdo de subvención nº 696231, programa ERA-Net SusAn [Espacio Europeo de Investigación - «Sistemas sostenibles de producción animal¼]), un grupo de expertos definió las «medidas de seguridad biológica en apicultura¼ como todas aquellas acciones realizadas para controlar el riesgo de penetración y propagación de agentes patógenos de la abeja melífera. Los autores, situándose en el contexto de la apicultura europea, exponen las medidas de seguridad biológica que ayudan a controlar las principales enfermedades de la abeja melífera en Europa: varroosis, loque americana, loque europea, nosemosis y aethinosis (infestación por el escarabajo de las colmenas). Por otra parte, estas medidas fueron divididas en diferentes «categorías¼ para poder tener en cuenta las cuestiones de productividad y el enfoque de «Una sola salud¼: salud humana, salud de la abeja melífera y protección del medio ambiente. Las 84 medidas de seguridad biológica en apicultura que describió el cuadro de expertos fueron jerarquizadas en función de una puntuación atribuida por su nivel de prioridad. La aplicación de este tipo de medidas representa un crucial paso adelante para conferir más resiliencia a la apicultura europea y hacerla más sostenible.

Expanding beyond zoonoses: the benefits of a national One Health coordination mechanism to address antimicrobial resistance and other shared health threats at the human-animal-environment interface in Kenya.

In order to manage global and transnational health threats at the human- animal-environment interface, a multisectoral One Health approach is required. Threats of this nature that require a One Health approach include, but are not limited to, emerging, endemic and re-emerging zoonotic diseases, food safety, antimicrobial resistance (AMR), vector-borne and neglected infectious diseases, toxicosis and pesticides. Relevant Kenyan authorities formally institutionalised One Health in 2011 through the establishment of the Zoonotic Disease Unit (ZDU) and its advisory group, the Zoonoses Technical Group. At that time, the One Health agenda focused on zoonotic diseases. As the issue of AMR began to gain traction globally, a One Health approach to its management was advocated in Kenya in 2015. This paper summarises a series of interviews (with respondents and key informants) that describe how AMR institutionalisation evolved in Kenya. It also examines how responses to other health threats at the human-animal- environment interface were coordinated and used to identify gaps and make recommendations to improve One Health coordination at the national level in Kenya. Results showed that the road to the institutionalisation of AMR through the National Action Plan on Prevention and Containment of Antimicrobial Resistance, 2017-2022 and a formally launched One Health coordination mechanism, the National Antimicrobial Stewardship Interagency Committee (NASIC), took ten years. Moreover, supplementary actions are still needed to further strengthen AMR coordination. In addition to the ZDU and NASIC, Kenya has established two other formal multisectoral and multidisciplinary coordination structures, one for aflatoxicosis and the other for health threats associated with pesticide use. The country has four distinct and separate One Health coordination mechanisms: for zoonoses, for AMR, for aflatoxicosis and for the health threats associated with pesticide use. The main gap lies in the lack of overall coordination between these topic-specific structures. An overall coordination mechanism for all One Health issues is therefore needed to improve synergy and complementarity. None of the topic-specific mechanisms plays a critical role in the policy development process, institutionalisation or implementation of activities related to the other topic areas. The authors recommend renaming the ZDU as the One Health Office, and expanding it to include AMR and food safety teams, and their associated technical working groups. Through this restructuring, the One Health Office would become an umbrella organisation dealing with all four issues mentioned above. Based on Kenya's experience, the authors recommend that other countries also consider expanding the scope of multisectoral One Health coordination mechanisms to include other shared health threats.

La gestion des menaces sanitaires mondiales et transnationales à l'interface homme­animal­environnement nécessite de faire appel à une approche Une seule santé multisectorielle. Les menaces de cette nature appelant une approche Une seule santé sont notamment (mais ne s'y limitent pas) les maladies zoonotiques émergentes, endémiques et réémergentes, la sécurité sanitaire des aliments, la résistance aux agents antimicrobiens, les maladies à transmission vectorielle, les maladies infectieuses négligées, les toxicoses et les pesticides. Les autorités kényanes ont institutionnalisé formellement l'approche Une seule santé en 2011 en mettant en place l'Unité Maladies zoonotiques (ZDU : Zoonotic Disease Unit) et son groupe consultatif, le Groupe technique Zoonoses. Le programme d'activités Une seule santé était alors centré sur les maladies zoonotiques. La problématique de l'antibiorésistance ayant gagné du terrain à l'échelle mondiale, en 2015 il a été préconisé de recourir à l'approche Une seule santé pour y faire face au Kenya. Les auteurs résument une série d'entretiens conduits auprès d'interlocuteurs et d'acteurs clés concernant l'évolution de l'institutionnalisation de la lutte contre la résistance aux agents antimicrobiens au Kenya. Ils mettent également en lumière le déroulement de la coordination des réponses mises en place pour contrer d'autres menaces sanitaires à l'interface homme­animal­environnement et l'éclairage que ces réponses ont permis d'apporter afin d'identifier les lacunes et de formuler des recommandations pour améliorer la coordination Une seule santé à l'échelle nationale. Il ressort de cette analyse qu'il a fallu dix ans pour que le Kenya institutionnalise le domaine de l'antibiorésistance à travers le Plan d'action national pour la prévention et la maîtrise de l'antibiorésistance (2017­2022) et pour qu'il mette en place un mécanisme officiel de coordination Une seule santé, le Comité national inter-agences de gestion concertée des agents antimicrobiens (NASIC : National Antimicrobial Stewardship Interagency Committee). Il est également apparu que des mesures complémentaires devaient être prises pour renforcer la coordination en matière d'antibiorésistance. Outre le ZDU et le NASIC, deux autres structures officielles de coordination multidisciplinaires et multisectorielles ont été créées au Kenya, chargées respectivement de l'aflatoxicose et des menaces sanitaires en lien avec l'utilisation de pesticides. Le pays dispose donc de quatre mécanismes de coordination distincts portant respectivement sur les zoonoses, l'antibiorésistance, l'aflatoxicose et les menaces sanitaires liées à l'utilisation de pesticides. La faille centrale est l'absence de coordination d'ensemble entre ces structures thématiques. Il faut donc instituer un mécanisme de coordination général pour toutes les questions relevant de l'approche Une seule santé, afin d'améliorer les synergies et la complémentarité. Aucun des mécanismes thématiques ne joue de rôle déterminant dans le processus d'élaboration des politiques, l'institutionnalisation ou la mise en œuvre de mesures relevant des autres thématiques. Les auteurs recommandent de modifier le nom du ZDU en Bureau Une seule santé et d'en élargir les compétences pour intégrer les équipes chargées de l'antibiorésistance et de la sécurité sanitaire des aliments ainsi que leurs groupes de travail techniques respectifs. Suite à cette restructuration, le Bureau Une seule santé pourrait devenir l'organisation transversale traitant des quatre thèmes précités. En se basant sur l'expérience du Kenya, les auteurs recommandent que d'autres pays s'engagent à leur tour sur la voie d'un élargissement de la portée des mécanismes de coordination multisectoriels Une seule santé afin d'inclure d'autres menaces sanitaires communes.

Para lidiar con las amenazas sanitarias mundiales o transnacionales en la interfaz de personas, animales y medio ambiente es preciso trabajar desde la óptica multisectorial de Una sola salud. Este tipo de amenazas que apelan al concepto de Una sola salud son, entre otras, las enfermedades zoonóticas emergentes, endémicas o reemergentes, los factores que afectan a la inocuidad de los alimentos, las resistencias a los antimicrobianos, las enfermedades infecciosas de transmisión vectorial o desatendidas, las toxicosis y los efectos del uso de plaguicidas. En 2011, con la creación de la ZDU (Zoonotic Disease Unit: unidad de enfermedades zoonóticas) y de un grupo técnico sobre zoonosis encargado de asesorarla, las autoridades competentes kenianas pusieron en práctica oficialmente la noción de Una sola salud. En aquel momento los programas de Una sola salud se centraban sobre todo en las enfermedades zoonóticas. A partir de 2015, cuando las resistencias a los antimicrobianos empezaron a ganar terreno en todo el mundo, en Kenia se apostó por combatirlas desde la óptica de Una sola salud. Los autores, sintetizando la información obtenida con una serie de encuestas y entrevistas con informadores clave, describen la progresiva institucionalización en Kenia de la lucha contra esas resistencias. También explican cómo se coordinaron las actividades de respuesta a otras amenazas sanitarias surgidas en la interfaz de personas, animales y medio ambiente y cómo ello sirvió para detectar deficiencias y formular recomendaciones encaminadas a mejorar la coordinación en clave de Una sola salud en todo el territorio nacional. Los resultados demuestran que hicieron falta diez años para institucionalizar la lucha contra la resistencia a los antimicrobianos, materializada en un plan nacional de acción sobre prevención y contención de antibiorresistencias para 2017­2022 y en la creación oficial de un mecanismo de coordinación de Una sola salud, el NASIC (National Antimicrobial Stewardship Interagency Committee: comité nacional interinstitucional de gestión de antimicrobianos). No obstante, aún hacen falta más medidas para mejorar la coordinación en todo lo relativo a las antibiorresistencias. Además de la ZDU y el NASIC, Kenia ha creado otras dos estructuras oficiales de coordinación multisectorial y multidisciplinar, una para la aflatoxicosis y otra para las amenazas sanitarias derivadas del uso de plaguicidas. El país cuenta así con cuatro mecanismos distintos e independientes de coordinación en clave de Una sola salud, centrados en las zoonosis, las antibiorresistencias, la aflatoxicosis y los riesgos sanitarios ligados a los plaguicidas. La principal deficiencia estriba en la falta de coordinación global entre estas estructuras de carácter temático. Para lograr mayores cotas de sinergia y complementariedad, por lo tanto, se requiere un mecanismo de coordinación general de todos los ámbitos de trabajo que tocan a la noción de Una sola salud. Ninguno de los mecanismos temáticos cumple una función decisiva en el proceso de formulación de políticas o de institucionalización y ejecución de actividades relacionadas con los demás ámbitos temáticos. Los autores recomiendan que la ZDU pase a denominarse Oficina de Una sola salud y que sea ampliada para integrar en ella a los equipos encargados de las antibiorresistencias y la inocuidad de los alimentos y a los correspondientes grupos de trabajo técnicos. Con semejante reestructuración, la Oficina de Una sola salud pasaría a ser una supraentidad que abarcaría los cuatro temas ya mencionados. Teniendo en cuenta la experiencia de Kenia, los autores recomiendan que otros países se planteen también la posibilidad de ampliar la cobertura de los mecanismos de coordinación multisectorial de Una sola salud para que incluyan otras amenazas sanitarias que tengan elementos en común.

Good farming practices in apiculture.

Modern European beekeeping is facing numerous challenges due to a variety of factors, mainly related to globalisation, agrochemical pollution and environmental changes. In addition to this, new pathogens threaten the health of European honey bees. In that context, correct colony management should encompass a wider vision, where productivity aspects are linked to a One Health approach in order to protect honey bees, humans and the environment. This paper describes a novel tool to be applied in beekeeping operations: good beekeeping practices (GBPs). The authors ranked a list of GBPs scored against their importance and validated by an international team, including researchers, national animal health authorities and international beekeepers' associations. These activities were carried out in the project 'BPRACTICES', approved within the transnational call of the European Research Area Network on Sustainable Animal Production (ERA-NET SusAn) in the Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation Programme of the European Union. This study, created through an international collaboration, aims to present an innovative and implementable approach, similar to applications already adopted in other livestock production systems.

L'apiculture moderne européenne est confrontée à de nombreuses difficultés dues à divers facteurs, pour la plupart liés à la mondialisation, à la pollution agrochimique et à la modification de l'environnement. À ces facteurs s'ajoute l'émergence de nouveaux agents pathogènes qui menacent la santé des abeilles mellifères d'Europe. Dans ce contexte, une gestion appropriée des colonies d'abeilles devrait reposer sur une vision plus large, dans laquelle les aspects relevant de la productivité sont examinés suivant une approche « Une seule santé ¼ afin de protéger les abeilles mellifères, les humains et l'environnement. Les auteurs décrivent un nouvel outil destiné à l'apiculture : les bonnes pratiques apicoles. Ils ont évalué et classé par ordre d'importance une liste de bonnes pratiques apicoles validées par une équipe internationale composée de chercheurs, d'autorités nationales de la santé animale et d'associations internationales d'apiculteurs. Ces activités ont été conduites dans le cadre du projet « BPRACTICES ¼, proposition retenue suite à l'appel à projets transnationaux du réseau ERA­NET SusAn (European Research Area Network on Sustainable Animal Production) au sein du Programme Horizon 2020 de l'Union européenne pour la recherche et l'innovation. Conçue sous forme de collaboration internationale, cette étude vise à proposer une approche innovante et pratique, similaire aux applications précédemment adoptées dans d'autres systèmes de production animale.

La apicultura europea hace frente a numerosos problemas resultantes de diversos factores, relacionados principalmente con la mundialización, la contaminación agroquímica y los cambios ambientales, a todo lo cual se suman nuevos patógenos que amenazan la salud de las abejas melíferas europeas. En este contexto, una correcta gestión de las colonias debe traer aparejada una visión más global, en la que las cuestiones de productividad se consideren en clave de «Una sola salud¼ con objeto de proteger tanto a las abejas melíferas como a las personas y el medio ambiente. En este artículo se describe una novedosa herramienta aplicable a la actividad apícola: las buenas prácticas de apicultura. Los autores jerarquizaron una serie de buenas prácticas de apicultura seleccionadas, validadas y puntuadas según su importancia por un equipo internacional que incluía a investigadores, autoridades nacionales de sanidad animal y asociaciones internacionales de apicultores. Este trabajo formaba parte del proyecto «BPRACTICES¼, aprobado con ocasión de la convocatoria internacional abierta por la Red del espacio europeo de investigación en sanidad animal sostenible (ERA­NET SusAn), inscrita a su vez en Horizonte 2020, el programa de investigación e innovación de la Unión Europea. El estudio aquí descrito, fruto de la colaboración internacional, tiene por objeto presentar un planteamiento novedoso y viable, parecido a las aplicaciones ya implantadas en otros sistemas de producción animal.

International health threats and global early warning and response mechanisms.

The global community continues to incur the high costs of crisis mitigation and emergency response to outbreaks of emerging infectious diseases, such as those caused by the H5N1 highly pathogenic avian influenza virus, Ebola virus, Nipah virus, Zika virus or the Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus. These viruses are particularly dangerous in regions associated with poor development indicators and high vulnerability. The drivers of these disease crises include failures in the way that animal diseases are detected and reported and failures in the way in which disease response is implemented by animal health and public health systems. In addition, the lack of a coordinated response hampers disease control efforts. A comprehensive approach for disease prevention, detection and response, however, requires a coordinated and joint effort among governments, communities, donors and international networks to invest effectively in prevention systems that can identify early signals of the emergence, spillover and spread of animal pathogens at the local level. These signals include trade bans, market closures, civil unrest, heavy rains and droughts associated with climate change, and livestock intensification or changes in consumer behaviour. The global community needs to increase its investment in early warning and detection systems that can provide information that enables action to be taken at the national, regional and global levels in the event of an outbreak of a transboundary animal disease (TAD). Like any preventive measure, an early warning system requires financial resources, but these are insignificant when compared to the losses that are avoided. Building a global early warning and effective response system for outbreaks is value for money, as the benefits far outweigh the costs. The goal of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) is to end hunger and poverty, which is a challenging and complex task. Building global capacity to prepare for and respond to TADs is an important element of the FAO's strategic objective to increase the resilience of livelihoods to threats and crises. Each year, livestock, and the people who rely upon them for their livelihoods, are confronted with animal disease and crises. They can strike suddenly, causing obvious illness and death, or emerge insidiously and become well established before becoming apparent. Animal disease emergencies threaten the production of, and access to, food; consequently, one of the FAO's missions is to help countries to prepare for and respond to animal health disasters.

La communauté mondiale continue à supporter le coût élevé de l'atténuation des crises ainsi que des réponses apportées en urgence aux foyers de maladies infectieuses émergentes, par exemple les infections dues au virus H5N1 de l'influenza aviaire hautement pathogène, au virus Ebola, au virus Nipah, au virus Zika ou au coronavirus responsable du syndrome respiratoire du Moyen-Orient. Ces virus sont particulièrement dangereux dans les régions les plus vulnérables et dont les indicateurs de développement sont bas. Les défaillances dans la détection et la notification des maladies animales jouent un rôle déterminant dans ces crises sanitaires, de même que l'incapacité des systèmes de santé animale et publique à mettre en œuvre une réponse sanitaire appropriée. En outre, l'absence de coordination dans les réponses apportées affaiblit les efforts pour lutter contre les maladies. La mise en place d'une méthode de prévention, de détection et de réponse intégrée face aux maladies exige que les gouvernements, les communautés, les donateurs et les réseaux internationaux associent leurs efforts et se concertent afin d'investir efficacement dans des systèmes de prévention capables de détecter à l'échelle locale les tout premiers signes d'émergence d'un agent pathogène chez les animaux, de sa transmission à d'autres espèces et de sa propagation. Parmi ces signes révélateurs on peut citer certaines interdictions d'importer, mais aussi la fermeture des marchés, l'existence de troubles civils, les changements climatiques tels que de fortes précipitations ou une sécheresse prolongée et la modification de certaines tendances en production animale ou du comportement des consommateurs. La communauté mondiale doit investir davantage dans des systèmes d'alerte précoce et de détection afin d'obtenir l'information nécessaire pour prendre des mesures appropriées, à l'échelle nationale, régional et mondiale, en cas d'apparition d'une maladie animale transfrontalière. Comme toute mesure de prévention, les systèmes d'alerte précoce doivent être correctement financés, mais cet effort est insignifiant lorsqu'on le compare aux pertes qu'il permet d'éviter. La création d'un système mondial d'alerte précoce et de réponse en cas de foyers constitue un investissement rentable, qui génère des bénéfices bien supérieurs à ses coûts. L'Organisation des Nations Unies pour l'alimentation et l'agriculture (FAO) a pour objectif de mettre un terme à la faim et à la pauvreté dans le monde, ce qui constitue une tâche complexe et difficile. Le renforcement des capacités mondiales de préparation et de réponse en cas de maladies animales transfrontalières est un aspect important des objectifs stratégiques de la FAO visant à accroître la résilience des moyens d'existence face aux crises et aux menaces. Chaque année, le cheptel domestique et les personnes qui en tirent leur subsistance sont confrontés à des maladies animales et à des crises sanitaires. Celles-ci peuvent se déchaîner brutalement et présenter un tableau clair de morbidité et de mortalité, ou bien émerger de manière insidieuse et se propager avant l'apparition de signes manifestes. Puisque la production et l'accès aux denrées alimentaires sont menacés par les catastrophes sanitaires dues aux maladies animales, l'une des missions de la FAO consiste à aider les pays à répondre à ces catastrophes et à s'y préparer.

La comunidad mundial sigue soportando los elevados costos de las actividades de atenuación de crisis y de respuesta de emergencia ante brotes de enfermedades infecciosas emergentes como los causados por el virus de la influenza aviar altamente patógena H5N1, el del Ébola, el Nipah, el Zika o el coronavirus del síndrome respiratorio de Oriente Medio. Estos virus resultan especialmente peligrosos en regiones que presentan indicadores de desarrollo mediocres y un elevado nivel de vulnerabilidad. Entre los factores que subyacen a estas crisis sanitarias están las deficiencias en la forma de detectar y comunicar estas enfermedades y la inadecuada aplicación de medidas de respuesta por parte de los sistemas de salud pública y sanidad animal. Por añadidura, la ausencia de una respuesta coordinada lastra también las actividades de lucha. Un trabajo integral de prevención y detección de enfermedades y de respuesta a ellas exige sin embargo un esfuerzo coordinado y conjunto de gobiernos, poblaciones, donantes y redes internacionales para invertir eficazmente en sistemas de prevención que sirvan para detectar las señales precoces de aparición, extensión y propagación de patógenos animales a nivel local, señales como prohibiciones comerciales, cierres de mercados, desórdenes civiles, cambios climáticos como lluvias o sequías intensas o modificación de la dinámica de producción ganadera o los patrones de consumo. La comunidad mundial debe invertir en mayor medida en sistemas de alerta y detección rápidas que aporten información que pueda traducirse en acciones de ámbito nacional, regional y mundial en caso de brote de una enfermedad animal transfronteriza. Como toda medida de carácter preventivo, un sistema de alerta rápida requiere recursos económicos, pero su cuantía resulta insignificante en comparación con las pérdidas que se evitan. La construcción de un sistema mundial de alerta rápida y respuesta eficaz en caso de brote ofrece gran rentabilidad, por cuanto los beneficios superan holgadamente los costos. La Organización de las Naciones Unidas para la Alimentación y la Agricultura (FAO) persigue el objetivo de poner fin al hambre y la pobreza, empresa harto difícil y compleja. Dotar al mundo de la capacidad de preparación y respuesta ante enfermedades animales transfronterizas es un elemento importante del objetivo estratégico de la FAO de lograr que los medios de sustento gocen de mayor resiliencia ante crisis y amenazas. Cada año, los rebaños de animales domésticos y las personas que dependen de ellos para vivir hacen frente a enfermedades y crisis zoosanitarias, que pueden golpear de forma súbita y extender abiertamente la enfermedad y la muerte o, por el contrario, surgir insidiosamente y arraigar antes de que su presencia resulte patente. Las emergencias zoosanitarias hacen peligrar la producción de alimentos y el acceso a ellos. Una de las misiones de la FAO, por consiguiente, es la de ayudar a los países a prepararse para episodios de catástrofe zoosanitaria y a responder a este tipo de eventos cuando se produzcan.

Linking animal diseases and social instability.

Social instability occurs as a consequence of war, civil strife or natural disasters such as earthquakes, floods and droughts. Animal diseases, including zoonoses, can be both a precursor to social instability and a result of social instability. Coping mechanisms, such as sound policies, trust in government, and robust infrastructure break down at times of civil instability. Such breakdowns often lead to a decline in both public health and the food and agricultural livestock base, thus creating a vicious cycle that involves inadequate nutrition, threatened livelihoods, and fewer opportunities for safe trade. This article is principally a discussion of a theoretical nature on the dynamics between animal diseases and social instability. Based on their experience of working for the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), the authors provide numerous examples of the connection between the two, mostly in countries that have fragile environments and are experiencing protracted crises. Disease has a direct and immediate effect on a community, but, in addition, if the community is not able to recover from the impact of a disease on their health and livelihoods, the consequences of an outbreak can persist even after the disease is no longer present. Stability, therefore, depends on a variety of factors, including the ability of a community to overcome the effects of a disease outbreak or other destabilising event. The FAO approach to helping families and communities to cope with the destabilizing effects of animal diseases is to build resilience, particularly amongst the most vulnerable households. This requires individuals and governments to gain a better understanding of what drives disease at the interface between human and animal health. In addition, it requires governments to invest in social protection programmes, establish a long-term risk reduction strategy that decreases vulnerability, and improve the sustainability of safe agricultural and marketing practices.

L'instabilité sociale est généralement une conséquence des conflits armés, des guerres civiles ou des catastrophes naturelles telles que tremblements de terre, inondations ou sécheresse. Les maladies animales, zoonoses incluses, sont des signes précurseurs de l'instabilité sociale, mais aussi son résultat. En période d'instabilité sociale, les mécanismes d'adaptation aux crises liés notamment à des politiques judicieuses, à la confiance dans l'action du gouvernement et à des infrastructures solides s'effondrent. Ces défaillances entraînent souvent un déclin à la fois de la santé publique et des ressources essentielles de l'agriculture et de l'élevage, créant ainsi un cercle vicieux caractérisé par une nutrition inadéquate, des moyens d'existence menacés et des possibilités raréfiées d'accéder à des marchés sûrs. L'essentiel de cet article est consacré à l'analyse théorique de la dynamique des liens entre les maladies animales et l'instabilité sociale. À partir de l'expérience acquise en travaillant pour l'Organisation des Nations Unies pour l'alimentation et l'agriculture (FAO), les auteurs donnent de nombreux exemples de ces liens, qui concernent pour la plupart des pays dont l'environnement est fragilisé ou qui sont exposés à des crises prolongées. Toute maladie a un effet direct et immédiat sur la communauté atteinte ; or, dans les situations où une communauté n'est pas en capacité de se relever après avoir subi cet impact ni d'assurer un retour à la situation antérieure en matière de santé et de moyens de subsistance, les conséquences d'un foyer persistent bien au-delà de la durée de la maladie. Par conséquent, la stabilité dépend de facteurs variés, dont l'aptitude d'une communauté à surmonter les effets d'un foyer ou d'autres événements déstabilisants. La méthode suivie par la FAO pour aider les familles et les communautés à faire face aux effets déstabilisants des maladies animales consiste à renforcer leur capacité de résilience, en particulier dans les foyers les plus vulnérables. Cela suppose que les individus et les gouvernements améliorent leur connaissance des facteurs propices à l'apparition des maladies à l'interface entre la santé humaine et animale. En outre, cela suppose que les gouvernements investissent dans des programmes de protection sociale, qu'ils mettent en place une stratégie de réduction des risques sur le long terme qui limite les vulnérabilités et qu'ils œuvrent pour une meilleure durabilité des pratiques agricoles et commerciales exemptes de risques.

La inestabilidad social es producto de guerras, disturbios civiles o catástrofes naturales como terremotos, inundaciones o sequías. Las enfermedades animales, comprendidas las zoonosis, pueden ser un precursor o un resultado de la inestabilidad social. En condiciones de inestabilidad civil se agrietan los mecanismos de un país para hacer frente a esas enfermedades (tales como políticas sólidas, confianza en los poderes públicos e infraestructuras robustas), lo que suele traducirse en un deterioro de la salud pública y de la cabaña ganadera en que reposan la alimentación y la agricultura, generándose así un círculo vicioso que trae consigo una nutrición deficiente, pone en peligro los medios de sustento y dificulta un comercio seguro. Los autores examinan básicamente los aspectos teóricos de la dinámica que conecta entre sí las enfermedades animales y la inestabilidad social. Recurriendo a su experiencia de trabajo para la Organización de las Naciones Unidas para la Alimentación y la Agricultura (FAO), ofrecen numerosos ejemplos de la relación existente entre ambos fenómenos, sobre todo en países que presentan un medio ambiente fragilizado y sufren crisis prolongadas. La enfermedad repercute directa e inmediatamente en la población, pero además, si esta no puede recuperarse de los efectos de una enfermedad sobre su estado sanitario y sus medios de vida, las consecuencias de un brote pueden dejarse sentir hasta mucho después de que la enfermedad haya desaparecido. La estabilidad depende por lo tanto de diversos factores, en particular la capacidad de las comunidades para superar los efectos de un brote infeccioso u otros episodios que las hayan desestabilizado. Desde la FAO se trata de ayudar a las familias y comunidades a lidiar con los efectos desestabilizadores de las enfermedades animales generando resiliencia, especialmente en las familias más vulnerables. Para ello es menester que tanto individuos como poderes públicos conozcan mejor los factores que hacen que una enfermedad se manifieste en la interfaz de la salud humana con la sanidad animal. Es preciso, además, que las administraciones inviertan en programas de protección social, instituyan una estrategia a largo plazo de reducción del riesgo, que redunde en una menor vulnerabilidad, e instauren procedimientos agrícolas y de comercialización más sostenibles.

Avian Influenza H5N1 Surveillance and its Dynamics in Poultry in Live Bird Markets, Egypt.

H5N1, a highly pathogenic avian influenza (H5N1 HPAI), is an endemic disease that is significant for public health in Egypt. Live bird markets (LBMs) are widespread in Egypt and play an important role in HPAI disease dynamics. The aim of the study was to evaluate the H5N1 HPAI prevalence in representative LBMs from 2009 to 2014, assess the effects of other variables and evaluate past outbreaks and human cases. It was found that ducks and geese are high-risk species and that the prevalence of H5N1 HPAI was higher immediately after the political crises of 2011. The end of a calendar year (June to December) was a high-risk period for positive samples, and the risk in urban LBMs was twice the risk in rural LBMs. Winter and political unrest was associated with higher H5N1 HPAI prevalence. Both human and poultry populations will continue to rise in Egypt, so continued poultry outbreaks are likely to be linked to more human cases. LBMs will continue to play a role in the dynamics of poultry disease in Egypt, and there is a need to reorganize markets in terms of biosecurity and traceability. It may also be beneficial to reduce inter-governorate inter-regional movements associated with poultry trade through promotion of regional trade or in the alternative provide sanitary features along the poultry market chain to reduce the speed of H5N1 HPAI infections. Policy formulation, design and enforcement must be pro-poor, and consideration of the sociocultural and economic realities in Egypt is important. The LBMs provide ideal platforms to carry out sound surveillance plans and mitigate zoonotic risks of H5N1 HPAI to humans.

Sensitivity and Specificity Estimation for the Clinical Diagnosis of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza in the Egyptian Participatory Disease Surveillance Program.

Many developing countries lack sufficient resources to conduct animal disease surveillance. In recent years, participatory epidemiology has been used to increase the cover and decrease the costs of surveillance. However, few diagnostic performance assessments have been carried out on participatory methods. The objective of the present study was to estimate the diagnostic performance of practitioners working for the Community-Based Animal Health and Outreach (CAHO) program, which is a participatory disease surveillance system for the detection of highly pathogenic avian influenza outbreaks in Egypt. CAHO practitioners' diagnostic assessment of inspected birds was compared with real-time reverse-transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RRT-PCR) test results at the household level. Diagnostic performance was estimated directly from two-by-two tables using RRT-PCR as a reference test in two different scenarios. In the first scenario, only results from chickens were considered. In the second scenario, results for all poultry species were analyzed. Poultry flocks in 916 households located in 717 villages were inspected by CAHO practitioners, who collected 3458 bird samples. In the first scenario, CAHO practitioners presented sensitivity (Se) and specificity (Sp) estimates of 40% (95% confidence interval [CI]: 21%-59%) and 92% (95% CI: 91%-94%), respectively. In the second scenario, diagnostic performance estimates were Se = 47% (95% CI: 29%-65%) and Sp = 88% (95% CI: 86%-90%). A significant difference was observed only between Sp estimates (P < 0.01). Practitioners' diagnostics and RRT-PCR results were in very poor agreement with kappa values of 0.16 and 0.14 for scenarios 1 and 2, respectively. However, the use of a broad case definition, the possible presence of immunity against the virus in replacement birds, and the low prevalence observed during the survey would negatively affect the practitioners' performance.

Emergence of a novel cluster of influenza A(H5N1) virus clade 2.2.1.2 with putative human health impact in Egypt, 2014/15.

A distinct cluster of highly pathogenic avian influenzaviruses of subtype A(H5N1) has been found to emergewithin clade 2.2.1.2 in poultry in Egypt since summer2014 and appears to have quickly become predominant.Viruses of this cluster may be associated withincreased incidence of human influenza A(H5N1) infectionsin Egypt over the last months.

Influenza surveillance in animals: what is our capacity to detect emerging influenza viruses with zoonotic potential?

A survey of national animal influenza surveillance programmes was conducted to assess the current capacity to detect influenza viruses with zoonotic potential in animals (i.e. those influenza viruses that can be naturally transmitted between animals and humans) at regional and global levels. Information on 587 animal influenza surveillance system components was collected for 99 countries from Chief Veterinary Officers (CVOs) (n = 94) and published literature. Less than 1% (n = 4) of these components were specifically aimed at detecting influenza viruses with pandemic potential in animals (i.e. those influenza viruses that are capable of causing epidemic spread in human populations over large geographical regions or worldwide), which would have zoonotic potential as a prerequisite. Those countries that sought to detect influenza viruses with pandemic potential searched for such viruses exclusively in domestic pigs. This work shows the global need for increasing surveillance that targets potentially zoonotic influenza viruses in relevant animal species.

Modelling the expected rate of laboratory biosafety breakdowns involving rinderpest virus in the post-eradication era.

Now that we are in the rinderpest post-eradication era, attention is focused on the risk of re-introduction. A semi-quantitative risk assessment identified accidental use of rinderpest virus in laboratories as the most likely cause of re-introduction. However there is little data available on the rates of laboratory biosafety breakdowns in general. In addition, any predictions based on past events are subject to various uncertainties. The aims of this study were therefore to investigate the potential usefulness of historical data for predicting the future risk of rinderpest release via laboratory biosafety breakdowns, and to investigate the impacts of the various uncertainties on these predictions. Data were collected using a worldwide online survey of laboratories, a structured search of ProMED reports and discussion with experts. A stochastic model was constructed to predict the number of laboratory biosafety breakdowns involving rinderpest that will occur over the next 10 years, based on: (1) the historical rate of biosafety breakdowns; and (2) the change in the number of laboratories that will have rinderpest virus in the next 10 years compared to historically. The search identified five breakdowns, all of which occurred during 1970-2000 and all of which were identified via discussions with experts. Assuming that our search for historical events had a sensitivity of over 60% and there has been at least a 40% reduction in the underlying risk (attributable to decreased laboratory activity post eradication) the most likely number of biosafety events worldwide was estimated to be zero over a 10 year period. However, the risk of at least one biosafety breakdown remains greater than 1 in 10,000 unless the sensitivity was at least 99% or the number of laboratories has decreased by at least 99% (based on 2000-2010 during which there were no biosafety breakdowns).

Detection of A/H5N1 virus from asymptomatic native ducks in mid-summer in Egypt.

In spite of all the efforts to control H5N1 in Egypt, the virus still circulates endemically, causing significant economic losses in the poultry industry and endangering human health. This study aimed to elucidate the role of clinically healthy ducks in perpetuation of H5N1 virus in Egypt in mid-summer, when the disease prevalence is at its lowest level. A total of 927 cloacal swabs collected from 111 household and 71 commercial asymptomatic duck flocks were screened by using a real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction. Only five scavenging ducks from a native breed in three flocks were found infected with H5N1 virus. This study indicates that H5N1 virus can persist in free-range ducks in hot weather, in contrast to their counterparts confined in household or commercial settings. Surveillance to identify other potential reservoirs is essential.

Epidemiology of African swine fever virus.

African swine fever virus used to occur primarily in Africa. There had been occasional incursions into Europe or America which apart from the endemic situation on the island of Sardinia always had been successfully controlled. But following an introduction of the virus in 2007, it now has expanded its geographical distribution into Caucasus and Eastern Europe where it has not been controlled, to date. African swine fever affects domestic and wild pig species, and can involve tick vectors. The ability of the virus to survive within a particular ecosystem is defined by the ecology of its wild host populations and the characteristics of livestock production systems, which influence host and vector species densities and interrelationships. African swine fever has high morbidity in naïve pig populations and can result in very high mortality. There is no vaccine or treatment available. Apart from stamping out and movement control, there are no control measures, thereby potentially resulting in extreme losses for producers. Prevention and control of the infection requires good understanding of its epidemiology, so that targeted measures can be instigated.

Integrating the surveillance of animal health, foodborne pathogens and foodborne diseases in developing and in-transition countries.

Animal diseases, foodborne pathogens and foodborne diseases have enormous impacts upon the health and livelihoods of producers and consumers in developing and in-transition countries. Unfortunately, the capacity for effective surveillance of infectious disease threats is often limited in these countries, leading to chronic under-reporting. This further contributes towards underestimating the effects of these diseases and an inability to implement effective control measures. However, innovative communications and diagnostic tools, as well as new analytical approaches and close cooperation within and between the animal and human health sectors, can be used to improve the coverage, quality and speed of reporting, as well as to generate more comprehensive estimates of the disease burden. These approaches can help to tackle endemic diseases and build essential surveillance capacities to address changing disease threats in the future.

Pathogenicity and molecular characterization of emerging porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus in Vietnam in 2007.

In 2007, Vietnam experienced swine disease outbreaks causing clinical signs similar to the 'porcine high fever disease' that occurred in China during 2006. Analysis of diagnostic samples from the disease outbreaks in Vietnam identified porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) and porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV-2). Additionally, Escherichia coli and Streptococcus equi subspecies zooepidemicus were cultured from lung and spleen, and Streptococcus suis from one spleen sample. Genetic characterization of the Vietnamese PRRSV isolates revealed that this virus belongs to the North American genotype (type 2) with a high nucleotide identity to the recently reported Chinese strains. Amino acid sequence in the nsp2 region revealed 95.7-99.4% identity to Chinese strain HUN4, 68-69% identity to strain VR-2332 and 58-59% identity to strain MN184. A partial deletion in the nsp2 gene was detected; however, this deletion did not appear to enhance the virus pathogenicity in the inoculated pigs. Animal inoculation studies were conducted to determine the pathogenicity of PRRSV and to identify other possible agents present in the original specimens. Pigs inoculated with PRRSV alone and their contacts showed persistent fever, and two of five pigs developed cough, neurological signs and swollen joints. Necropsy examination showed mild to moderate bronchopneumonia, enlarged lymph nodes, fibrinous pericarditis and polyarthritis. PRRSV was re-isolated from blood and tissues of the inoculated and contact pigs. Pigs inoculated with lung and spleen tissue homogenates from sick pigs from Vietnam developed high fever, septicaemia, and died acutely within 72 h, while their contact pigs showed no clinical signs throughout the experiment. Streptococcus equi subspecies zooepidemicus was cultured, and PRRSV was re-isolated only from the inoculated pigs. Results suggest that the cause of the swine deaths in Vietnam is a multifactorial syndrome with PRRSV as a major factor.

Immune protection in animals: the examples of rinderpest and foot-and-mouth disease.

Fading immune protection in farmed animals may present a problem, particularly in free-ranging animals in nomadic and transhumant pastoral systems, where animals are not readily available for large-scale blanket vaccination programmes. Two veterinary examples of fading immune protection are discussed: rinderpest and foot-and-mouth disease (FMD). Both are devastating viral diseases of cattle that have a huge impact on the farming economy. Both diseases can be controlled by vaccination, although the post-vaccination immunity afforded by the rinderpest vaccine is markedly different from that induced by FMD vaccines. These differences may in part explain the respective advancement of international eradication campaigns: while global eradication of rinderpest is imminent, FMD viruses are still actively circulating in many parts of the world.

Experiences with vaccination in countries endemically infected with highly pathogenic avian influenza: the Food and Agriculture Organization perspective.

Vaccination has been used extensively for the control and prevention of highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) caused by viruses of the H5N1 subtype in endemically infected countries. The Food and Agriculture Organization views vaccination as a legitimate aid in the control and prevention of infection and disease caused by HPAI viruses but does not see it as a panacea. Vaccination should be used as just one in a number of measures used together to reduce the effect and risk of infection. It will be required for a considerable time in endemically infected countries. The methods used in Vietnam in implementing blanket vaccination against H5N1 HPAI viruses demonstrate the steps that should be considered when introducing vaccination. So far, it has not been possible to determine the precise effect of vaccination in endemically infected countries because it has been used in combination with other measures. Well managed vaccination campaigns will reduce the incidence of infection in poultry and therefore reduce the risk to humans from these viruses. Vaccination was implemented to protect both poultry and humans, with a major goal being to reduce the risk of emergence of a human influenza pandemic virus. Economic analysis of vaccination should focus on cost-effectiveness of proposed strategies. Ex-ante and ex-post evaluation of vaccination campaigns should take into account the benefits generated in the poultry sector and for human health.

The impact of climate change on the epidemiology and control of Rift Valley fever.

Climate change is likely to change the frequency of extreme weather events, such as tropical cyclones, floods, droughts and hurricanes, and may destabilise and weaken the ecosystem services upon which human society depends. Climate change is also expected to affect animal, human and plant health via indirect pathways: it is likely that the geography of infectious diseases and pests will be altered, including the distribution of vector-borne diseases, such as Rift Valley fever, yellow fever, malaria and dengue, which are highly sensitive to climatic conditions. Extreme weather events might then create the necessary conditions for Rift Valley fever to expand its geographical range northwards and cross the Mediterranean and Arabian seas, with an unexpected impact on the animal and human health of newly affected countries. Strengthening global, regional and national early warning systems is crucial, as are co-ordinated research programmes and subsequent prevention and intervention measures.