Accessibility and adherence to positive airway pressure treatment in patients with obstructive sleep apnea: a multicenter study in Latin America.

PURPOSE: Information on access and adherence to positive airway pressure (PAP) treatment is lacking at the regional level in Latin America. This study characterized access and adherence to PAP in patients with moderate-severe obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) in Latin America. METHODS: Cross-sectional study, conducted at 9 sleep centers across Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Mexico, and Peru. Adults diagnosed with moderate-severe OSA (apnea-hypopnea index [AHI] ≥ 15/h) in the previous 12-18 months were eligible. Anthropometrics, health coverage, and OSA severity data were collected. Data on access to therapy, barriers to access, adherence, and factors related to non-compliance were obtained via standardized telephone survey. RESULTS: Eight hundred eighty patients (70% male, 54 ± 13 years, AHI 49 ± 28/h, body mass index 32 ± 7 kg/m2) were included. Four hundred ninety patients (56%) initiated PAP, 70 (14%) discontinued therapy during the first year (mainly due to intolerance), and 420 (48%) were still using PAP when surveyed. Health insurance was private in 36.9% of patients, via the social security system in 31.1%, and via the state in 13.3%, and 18.7% did not have any coverage; 49.5% of patients had to pay all equipment costs. Reasons for not starting PAP were unclear or absent indication (42%), coverage problems (36%), and lack of awareness of OSA burden (14%). Patients with better adherence were older (55.3 ± 13 vs 52 ± 13; p = 0.002) and had more severe OSA (AHI 51.8 ± 27 vs 45.6 ± 27; p = 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Less than half moderate-severe OSA patients started and continue to use PAP. Unclear or absent medical indication and financial limitations were the most relevant factors limiting access to therapy.

Associação entre Alteração da Glicemia de Jejum, Cognição e Capacidade Funcional de Idosos / Association Between Impaired Fasting Glycemia, Cognition and Reduced Functional Capacity of Elderly People

Objetiva-se investigar a possível associação entre a alteração da glicemia de jejum, o déficit cognitivo e a redução da capacidade funcional. Foram selecionados 802 idosos com idade igual ou superior a 60 anos que foram submetidos às questões incluídas na Avaliação Geriatrica Ampla (AGA), no Mini Exame do Estado Mental (MEEM), no teste da Escala de Depressão Geriátrica (GDS) e nos testes de Atividade da Vida Diária (AVD), além do exame laboratorial da glicemia de jejum. A análise dos resultados mostrou que há relação entre alteração da glicemia de jejum, o declínio cognitivo e a redução da capacidade funcional. Os resultados do presente estudo sugerem que a hiperglicemia de jejum é um fator de risco para o desenvolvimento da diminuição do desempenho cognitivo e para a redução da capacidade funcional de idosos

Objective: to investigate the possible association between altered fasting glycemia, cognitive deficit and reduced functional capacity. Methods: 802 elderly individuals aged over 60 years were selected. The elderly were submitted to evaluations that are included in Comprehensive Geriatric Assessment, Mini Mental State Examination and Daily Life Activity and Geriatric Depression Scale tests, as well as the laboratory blood glucose test. Results: The analysis of the results showed that there is a relationship between fasting glycemia, cognitive decline and functional capacity reduction. Conclusions: The results of the present study suggest that fasting hyperglycemia is a risk factor for the development of cognitive impairment and reduced functional capacity of the elderly

Corrigendum to "Relationship between perceived sleep and polysomnography in older adult patients" [Sleep Sci. 8 (2015) 75-81].

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1016/j.slsci.2015.04.002.].

Relationship between perceived sleep and polysomnography in older adult patients.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Aging is a multifactorial process that elicits changes in the duration and quality of sleep. Polysomnography is considered to be the standard examination for the analysis of sleep and consists of the simultaneous recording of selected physiological variables during sleep. OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to use polysomnography to compare sleep reported by senior citizens. METHODS: We selected 40 patients, both male and female, with ages ranging from 64 to 89 years from the Center for the Study of Aging at the Federal University of São Paulo. Patients answered questions about sleep on the Comprehensive Geriatric Assessment and underwent polysomnography. RESULTS: The results were compared, and agreement between perceived sleep and polysomnography was found in several areas. There was an association between difficulty sleeping and sleep onset latency (p=0.015), waking up at night with sleep onset latency (p=0.005), total sleep time with daytime sleepiness (0.005) and snoring (0.027), sleep efficiency with sleepiness (0.004), snoring (0.033) and pause in breathing (p=0.024), awakenings with snoring (p=0.012) and sleep apnea with pauses in breathing (p=0.001). CONCLUSION: These results suggest that the older adult population have a good perception of their sleep. The questionnaires aimed at this population should be used as an alternative to polysomnography.

Brazilian consensus on guidelines for diagnosis and treatment for restless legs syndrome.

The Consensus on restless legs syndrome is an effort of neurologists from several Brazilian states, which tirelessly reviewed the literature of recent years in search of evidence, both in regard to diagnosis and treatment, according to the Oxford Centre for Evidence-based Medicine.

Brazilian consensus on guidelines for diagnosis and treatment for restless legs syndrome / Consenso Brasileiro para as diretrizes de diagnóstico e tratamento da síndrome das pernas inquietas

The Consensus on restless legs syndrome is an effort of neurologists from several Brazilian states, which tirelessly reviewed the literature of recent years in search of evidence, both in regard to diagnosis and treatment, according to the Oxford Centre for Evidence-based Medicine.

O Consenso em síndrome das pernas inquietas contou com a participação de neurologistas de vários estados brasileiros, os quais incansavelmente revisaram a literatura dos últimos anos em busca de evidências, tanto no que se refere ao diagnóstico como ao tratamento, de acordo com a Classificação do Centro de Oxford para Medicina Baseada em Evidências.

Polysomnographic sleep aspects in liver cirrhosis: a case control study.

AIM: To study sleep aspects and parameters in cirrhotic patients and assess the role of liver dysfunction severity in polysomnographic results. METHODS: This was a case-control study. Patients with a diagnosis of liver cirrhosis were consecutively enrolled in the study. Clinical examinations and laboratory liver tests were performed in all patients, and disease severity was assessed using the Child-Pugh score. The control group consisted of age- and gender-matched healthy volunteers. All individuals answered a questionnaire about habits, behaviors, and complaints related to sleep and were submitted to polysomnography. Sleep parameters were compared between the two groups, and separate analyses were performed among classes of Child-Pugh classification in the cirrhotic group. RESULTS: Forty-two cirrhotic patients and forty-two controls were enrolled. Compared to the control group, the cirrhotic group exhibited lower sleep efficiency (mean ± SD: 73.89% ± 14.99% vs 84.43% ± 8.55%, P < 0.01), increased latency (151.27 ± 93.24 min vs 90.62 ± 54.74 min, P < 0.01) and a lower percentage of rapid eye movement (REM) sleep (14.04% ± 5.64% vs 20.71% ± 6.77%, P < 0.05) as well as a higher frequency of periodic limb movements (10.56 ± 2.85/h vs 2.79 ± 0.61/h, P < 0.01). The comparison of sleep parameters among Child A, B and C cirrhotic patients revealed a significant reduction of REM sleep stage occurrence in individuals with severe liver disease (Child C patients) compared to Child A/B patients (polysomnography percentage of REM sleep stage of patients Child A: 16.1% ± 1.2%; Child B: 14.9% ± 1.2%; Child C: 8.6% ± 1.6%, P < 0.05). CONCLUSION: Cirrhosis was associated with shorter sleep time, reduced sleep efficiency, increased sleep latency, increased REM latency and reduced REM sleep. Additionally, disease severity influences sleep parameters.

Oxidative stress and quality of life in elderly patients with obstructive sleep apnea syndrome: are there differences after six months of Continuous Positive Airway Pressure treatment?

OBJECTIVES: This study evaluated the effect of Continuous Positive Airway Pressure treatment on oxidative stress parameters and the quality of life of elderly patients with obstructive sleep apnea syndrome. METHODS: In total, 30 obstructive sleep apnea syndrome patients and 27 subjects without obstructive sleep apnea syndrome were included in this study. Both groups underwent quality of life and oxidative stress evaluations at baseline and after six months. Polysomnography was performed in both groups at baseline and a second time in the obstructive sleep apnea syndrome group after six months of Continuous Positive Airway Pressure treatment. All of the variables were compared between the control and obstructive sleep apnea syndrome groups in this prospective case-control study. RESULTS: The baseline concentrations of the antioxidant enzyme catalase were higher in the obstructive sleep apnea syndrome group than the control group. After Continuous Positive Airway Pressure treatment, the obstructive sleep apnea syndrome group exhibited a reduction in the level of oxidative stress, as indicated by a decrease in the level of lipid peroxidation measured by the malondialdehyde (MDA) concentration [pre: 2.7 nmol malondialdehyde/mL (95% 1.6-3.7) vs. post: 1.3 nmol MDA/mL (0.7-1.9), p<0.01]. Additionally, improvements were observed in two domains covered by the SF-36 questionnaire: functional capacity [pre: 77.4 (69.2-85.5) vs. post: 83.4 (76.9-89.9), p = 0.002] and pain [pre: 65.4 (52.8-78.1) vs. post: 77.8 (67.2-88.3), p = 0.004]. CONCLUSION: Our study demonstrated that the use of Continuous Positive Airway Pressure to treat obstructive sleep apnea syndrome in elderly patients reduced oxidative stress and improved the quality of life.

Oxidative stress and quality of life in elderly patients with obstructive sleep apnea syndrome: are there differences after six months of Continuous Positive Airway Pressure treatment?

OBJECTIVES: This study evaluated the effect of Continuous Positive Airway Pressure treatment on oxidative stress parameters and the quality of life of elderly patients with obstructive sleep apnea syndrome. METHODS: In total, 30 obstructive sleep apnea syndrome patients and 27 subjects without obstructive sleep apnea syndrome were included in this study. Both groups underwent quality of life and oxidative stress evaluations at baseline and after six months. Polysomnography was performed in both groups at baseline and a second time in the obstructive sleep apnea syndrome group after six months of Continuous Positive Airway Pressure treatment. All of the variables were compared between the control and obstructive sleep apnea syndrome groups in this prospective case-control study. RESULTS: The baseline concentrations of the antioxidant enzyme catalase were higher in the obstructive sleep apnea syndrome group than the control group. After Continuous Positive Airway Pressure treatment, the obstructive sleep apnea syndrome group exhibited a reduction in the level of oxidative stress, as indicated by a decrease in the level of lipid peroxidation measured by the malondialdehyde (MDA) concentration [pre: 2.7 nmol malondialdehyde/mL (95% 1.6-3.7) vs. post: 1.3 nmol MDA/mL (0.7-1.9), p<0.01]. Additionally, improvements were observed in two domains covered by the SF-36 questionnaire: functional capacity [pre: 77.4 (69.2-85.5) vs. post: 83.4 (76.9-89.9), p = 0.002] and pain [pre: 65.4 (52.8-78.1) vs. post: 77.8 (67.2-88.3), p = 0.004]. CONCLUSION: Our study demonstrated that the use of Continuous Positive Airway Pressure to treat obstructive sleep apnea syndrome in elderly patients reduced oxidative stress and improved the quality of life.

Nocturnal awakening with headache and its relationship with sleep disorders in a population-based sample of adult inhabitants of Sao Paulo City, Brazil.

Our aim was to estimate the prevalence of nocturnal awakening with headache (NAH) in the population of São Paulo City according to gender, age (20-80 years old) and socioeconomic classes and its relationship to sleep disorders, sleep parameters, anxiety, depression, fatigue, life quality and obesity. We used a population-based survey with a representative three-stage cluster sample. Questionnaires and scales were applied face-to-face, and polysomnography was performed in 1101 volunteers, aged 42 ± 14 years, 55% women. The complaint of NAH occurring at least once a week had a prevalence of 8.4%, mostly in women, obese subjects and those aged 50-59 years-old. We observed associations of NAH with insomnia, restless leg syndrome (RLS), nightmares and bruxism, but not obstructive sleep apnea syndrome. In a logistics regression model, risk factors for NAH were female gender, odds ratio (OR) (95% confidence interval [CI]) 4.5 (2.8-7.3); obesity, OR 1.9 (1.1-3.3); age between 50 and 59 years, OR 2.4 (1.2-4.7); severe anxiety, OR 8.1 (3.6-18.1); RLS, 2.7 (1.2-5.6); and nightmares, 2.2 (1.3-3.7). Our study shows that NAH was highly prevalent in the population of São Paulo and suggests that this phenomenon has specific characteristics with specific risk factors: obesity, RLS and nightmares.

[Minimal hepatic encephalopathy detection by neuropsychological and neurophysiological methods and the role of ammonia for its diagnosis]. / Detecção de encefalopatia hepática mínima através de testes neuropsicológicos e neurofisiológicos e o papel da amônia no seu diagnóstico.

CONTEXT: Minimal hepatic encephalopathy has been systematically investigated in cirrhotic patients. Although, there are controversies regarding the best methods as well as the role of ammonia for its diagnosis. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the frequency of minimal hepatic encephalopathy diagnosed by neuropsychological and neurophysiological methods in cirrhotic patients, as well as possible associated risk factors for this condition, including the role of arterial ammonia concentrations for its diagnosis. METHODS: Cirrhotic patients were evaluated by the number connection test parts A and B (NCT-A and NCT-B), and auditory evoked-related potentials (P300). Minimal hepatic encephalopathy was diagnosed by the presence of abnormal P300 and in unless one of the performed neuropsychologic tests. Arterial ammonia concentration, scholarity and cirrhosis severity accessed by Child-Pugh classification were evaluated in all. RESULTS: Forty-eight cirrhotic patients were evaluated, with median age 50 +/- 8 years old, 79% male. The main etiologies were alcoholic and viral. The P300 was abnormal in 75% of cases, while NCT-A and NCT-B were abnormal in 58% and 65%, respectively. The NCT-B results were influenced by scholarity. The minimal hepatic encephalopathy frequency was 50%. Arterial ammonia concentration was not significantly increased in minimal hepatic encephalopathy diagnosed patients (195 +/- 152 mmol/L versus 148 +/- 146 mmol/L; P>0,05). There was no difference between groups with or without minimal hepatic encephalopathy in the other studied variables. CONCLUSION: Minimal hepatic encephalopathy is a frequent condition in cirrhotic patients. The arterial ammonia concentration does not play a major role in its diagnosis.

Detecção de encefalopatia hepática mínima através de testes neuropsicológicos e neurofisiológicos e o papel da amônia no seu diagnóstico / Minimal hepatic encephalopathy detection by neuropsychological and neurophysiological methods and the role of ammonia for its diagnosis

CONTEXTO: A encefalopatia hepática mínima vem sendo sistematicamente investigada em pacientes com cirrose hepática. Entretanto, existem controvérsias quanto aos melhores métodos, bem como o papel da amônia para seu diagnóstico. OBJETIVO: Avaliar a frequência de encefalopatia hepática mínima diagnosticada através de testes neuropsicológicos e neurofisiológicos em cirróticos, bem como os possíveis fatores de risco para esta condição, incluindo o papel da concentração arterial de amônia em seu diagnóstico. MÉTODOS: Indivíduos com cirrose hepática foram avaliados através do teste de conexão numérica partes A e B (TCN-A e TCN-B) e potencial evocado relacionado a eventos (P300). O diagnóstico de encefalopatia hepática mínima foi feito quando da presença de anormalidade no P300 e em, pelo menos, um dos testes neuropsicológicos. As concentrações arteriais de amônia, a escolaridade e a gravidade da cirrose hepática também foram avaliadas em todos. RESULTADOS: Foram avaliados 48 pacientes cirróticos, com média de idade 50 ± 8 anos, sendo 79 por cento do sexo masculino. As principais causas foram a alcoólica e a viral. O P300 foi anormal em 75 por cento dos casos e o TCN-A e TCN-B anormais em 58 por cento e 65 por cento dos casos, respectivamente. Os resultados do TCN-B foram influenciados pela escolaridade. A frequência de encefalopatia hepática mínima foi de 50 por cento. A concentração arterial de amônia não foi significantemente maior em pacientes com diagnóstico de encefalopatia hepática mínima (195 ± 152 mmol/L versus 148 ± 146 mmol/L; P>0,05). Não houve diferença significante entre os grupos com e sem encefalopatia hepática mínima quanto às demais variáveis estudadas. CONCLUSÃO:A encefalopatia hepática mínima é condição frequente em pacientes com cirrose hepática. A concentração arterial de amônia não parece ter papel importante no seu diagnóstico.

CONTEXT: Minimal hepatic encephalopathy has been systematically investigated in cirrhotic patients. Although, there are controversies regarding the best methods as well as the role of ammonia for its diagnosis. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the frequency of minimal hepatic encephalopathy diagnosed by neuropsychological and neurophysiological methods in cirrhotic patients, as well as possible associated risk factors for this condition, including the role of arterial ammonia concentrations for its diagnosis. METHODS: Cirrhotic patients were evaluated by the number connection test parts A and B (NCT-A and NCT-B), and auditory evoked-related potentials (P300). Minimal hepatic encephalopathy was diagnosed by the presence of abnormal P300 and in unless one of the performed neuropsychologic tests. Arterial ammonia concentration, scholarity and cirrhosis severity accessed by Child-Pugh classification were evaluated in all. RESULTS: Forty-eight cirrhotic patients were evaluated, with median age 50 ± 8 years old, 79 percent male. The main etiologies were alcoholic and viral. The P300 was abnormal in 75 percent of cases, while NCT-A and NCT-B were abnormal in 58 percent and 65 percent, respectively. The NCT-B results were influenced by scholarity. The minimal hepatic encephalopathy frequency was 50 percent. Arterial ammonia concentration was not significantly increased in minimal hepatic encephalopathy diagnosed patients (195 ± 152 mmol/L versus 148 ± 146 mmol/L; P>0,05). There was no difference between groups with or without minimal hepatic encephalopathy in the other studied variables. CONCLUSION: Minimal hepatic encephalopathy is a frequent condition in cirrhotic patients. The arterial ammonia concentration does not play a major role in its diagnosis.

[Evaluation of the event-related potential (ERP-P300) in patients with hepatic cirrhosis without encephalopathy]. / Avaliação dos potenciais evocados relacionados a eventos (ERP-P300) em pacientes com cirrose hepática sem encefalopatia.

BACKGROUND: In hepatic cirrhosis structural liver alterations occur leading to the loss of the organ functions with neuro-psychiatric consequence, as cognitive dysfunctions. One of the most effective ways of objectively evaluating cognition is to measure electrophysiological activity in the central nervous system trough event-related potentials (ERP-P300). AIM: To assess the value of the event-related potential (ERP) in order to determine cognitive disturbances in patients with liver cirrhosis and to assist in the diagnosis of minimal hepatic encephalopathy. METHODS: Fifty patients with liver cirrhosis were selected, without clinical symptoms of hepatic encephalopathy and 35 healthy volunteers, matched by sex and age. The patients were submitted to clinical-neurological and laboratorial examination. The ERP-P300 was performed by the two groups to determine cognitive disturbances. RESULTS: The study showed significant differences between the ERP-P300 latency averages of the two groups. CONCLUSION: The ERP-P300 is simple to use and depends on controllable variables. It is also easy to reproduce and, when properly used, can be useful both to determine cognitive disturbances in patients with hepatic cirrhosis and to assist in minimal hepatic encephalopathy diagnosis.

Avaliação dos potenciais evocados relacionados a eventos (ERP-P300) em pacientes com cirrose hepática sem encefalopatia / Evaluation of the event-related potential (ERP-P300) in patients with hepatic cirrhosis without encephalopathy

RACIONAL: Na cirrose hepática ocorrem alterações na estrutura do fígado, levando à perda das funções do órgão, com conseqüências neuropsiquiátricas, como disfunções cognitivas. Um dos meios mais efetivos para avaliar objetivamente as funções cognitivas é medir a atividade eletrofisiológica do sistema nervoso central através do potencial evocado relacionado a eventos (ERP-P300). OBJETIVO: Estudar a utilidade do potencial evocado relacionado a eventos (ERP), para avaliar distúrbios cognitivos em pacientes com cirrose hepática e como auxiliar no diagnóstico da encefalopatia hepática mínima. MÉTODO: Foram selecionados 50 pacientes, diagnosticados com cirrose hepática sem sinais clínicos de encefalopatia hepática e 35 voluntários saudáveis de idades e sexo semelhantes. Em todos os pacientes foram realizados exames clínico-neurológico e laboratoriais. Para identificação do prejuízo cognitivo foi utilizado o ERP-P300 e obtida a média da latência da onda P300. RESULTADOS: Houve diferença significativa entre as médias da latência do ERP-P300 do grupo cirrótico e controle. CONCLUSÃO: A realização do ERP-P300 é simples, depende de fatores controláveis de variação e tem fácil reprodutibilidade, podendo ser útil para o rastreio de distúrbios cognitivos em pacientes com cirrose e auxiliar no diagnóstico de encefalopatia hepática mínima.

BACKGROUND: In hepatic cirrhosis structural liver alterations occur leading to the loss of the organ functions with neuro-psychiatric consequence, as cognitive dysfunctions. One of the most effective ways of objectively evaluating cognition is to measure electrophysiological activity in the central nervous system trough event-related potentials (ERP-P300). AIM: To assess the value of the event-related potential (ERP) in order to determine cognitive disturbances in patients with liver cirrhosis and to assist in the diagnosis of minimal hepatic encephalopathy. METHODS: Fifty patients with liver cirrhosis were selected, without clinical symptoms of hepatic encephalopathy and 35 healthy volunteers, matched by sex and age. The patients were submitted to clinical-neurological and laboratorial examination. The ERP-P300 was performed by the two groups to determine cognitive disturbances. RESULTS: The study showed significant differences between the ERP-P300 latency averages of the two groups. CONCLUSION: The ERP-P300 is simple to use and depends on controllable variables. It is also easy to reproduce and, when properly used, can be useful both to determine cognitive disturbances in patients with hepatic cirrhosis and to assist in minimal hepatic encephalopathy diagnosis.

Placebo and modafinil effect on sleepiness in obstructive sleep apnea.

INTRODUCTION: Previous studies have evaluated the effect of modafinil on residual excessive daytime sleepiness (EDS) in patients with obstructive sleep apnea syndrome (OSAS) under effective CPAP treatment. Even though those trials also used placebo groups, we suppose that the placebo effect might influence the patients' response to modafinil. METHODS: Twenty sleepy patients with OSAS under CPAP treatment were selected. All of them had Epworth Sleepiness Scale (ESS) >10. Following baseline evaluation (T1), all subjects were instructed to take placebo for 7 days. After this single-blind placebo phase and second evaluation (T2), patients were randomly allocated to placebo or modafinil treatment for 21 days in a double-blind protocol. Patients underwent a final evaluation (T3) on the last day of drug intake. The evaluations at T1, T2 and T3 consisted of: medical and laboratory examinations, nocturnal polysomnography, ESS, maintenance of wakefulness test (MWT) and complex reaction time (CRT-NY). In addition, in T2 and T3 the change of illness severity scale (CGI-C) and the evaluation of quality of life (SF-36) were applied. RESULTS: The comparison between the two groups during the three periods studied, showed the following results: in the modafinil group, ESS score did not change during the initial placebo period, but there was a significant reduction during the modafinil treatment period (p=0.0006); in the placebo group a significant reduction occurred during the initial placebo period (p=0.05), and no further change was observed in the treatment (placebo) period. A significant difference was found between the two groups after the placebo period (T2) (p=0.02). Three patients (33%) of the modafinil group and 9 patients (81%) of the placebo group were classified as placebo-responsive (X2: p=0.039). In the treatment period, reaction time was significantly reduced in the modafinil group compared to the placebo group (p<0.02). There was a trend toward improvement in overall clinical condition and also in some domains of SF-36 in the modafinil group. CONCLUSION: In summary, our study confirms that modafinil used adjunctively with CPAP therapy improves subjective daytime sleepiness in patients with OSAS who were regular users of CPAP therapy but still experienced sleepiness. Moreover, it could help in the improvement of objective measures of behavioral alertness and reduce functional impairments. The usefulness of a blinded placebo period for systematic investigation of placebo role in studies based on subjective response is a point that should be considered in this type of drug trial.

[Sleep in psychiatric disorders]. / O sono em transtornos psiquiátricos.

Altered sleep patterns are prominent in the majority of psychiatric disorders. This article examines the psychiatric disorders that are most often associated to sleep dysfunction as it is related in clinical practice and describes the polysomnographic findings. Patient's main complaints are related to difficulty in initiating and maintaining sleep (initial or middle insomnia, respectively) and poor quality of sleep. Early awakening or terminal insomnia is most described in the depressive conditions. Hypersomnia may be the main symptom in some depressive disorders, as seasonal depression, depression with atypical features or depressive episodes in bipolar disorder. Polysomnographic evaluation shows, in general, a significative reduction in the efficiency and total time of sleep, in detriment to the amount of slow wave sleep. The reduction of rapid eye movement (REM) sleep latency is mainly described for the depression, but has also been reported in other psychiatric disorders.

Acute neurophysiological effects of the hypnotic zolpidem in healthy volunteers.

INTRODUCTION: The imidazopyridine zolpidem is a hypnotic drug with relative selectivity for the benzodiazepine (BZP) type 1 receptor subtypes displaying a different biochemical structure to that of BZPs. Little is known of its electrophysiological effects. PURPOSE: The aim of the present study was to investigate the acute neurophysiological effects of clinical oral doses of zolpidem. METHODS: This was a double blind, independent group design study. Thirty-six young, healthy volunteers were randomly allocated to one of three groups--zolpidem (5 mg and 10 mg) and placebo. In addition to ERPs, behavioural measures were used to examine sedative effects of the drug. RESULTS: ERPs were affected in a similar way to that described after sedative/hypnotic drug ingestion: increased N2 and P3 latencies and decreased N2 and P3 amplitudes. However, contrary to what is expected of a hypnotic drug, there was no change with N1 while P2 amplitude increased after the highest dose. CONCLUSIONS: Because zolpidem showed different effects in different components, it seems to first enhance or preserve initial orienting (no change in N1), after an increase of P2 and then drastically diminish resource allocation (affecting N2 and P3 latencies and amplitudes). The study with ERPs, therefore, allows a more direct "moment to moment" investigation of finer mechanisms of changes in cerebral processes underlying the acute ingestion of the drug in question. The effects on N2 and P3 amplitudes and latencies were similar to those of other sedative/hypnotic drugs. However, zolpidem led to an unexpected increase in P2 amplitude; this effect may be related to its selective receptor binding profile and warrants further research.

O sono em transtornos psiquiátricos / Sleep in psychiatric disorders

O achado de padrões alterados de sono é notável na maioria dos transtornos psiquiátricos. Neste artigo são abordados os transtornos psiquiátricos que mais freqüentemente apresentam alterações de sono na prática clínica e a descrição dos achados polissonográficos. As queixas mais freqüentes dos pacientes são relacionadas à dificuldade para iniciar e manter o sono (insônia inicial e de manutenção, respectivamente) e sono não reparador, observadas na maioria dos transtornos. A insônia terminal ou despertar precoce é mais relacionada a quadros depressivos. A hipersonia pode aparecer em alguns quadros de depressão como sazonal, atípica ou em transtornos bipolares. Em relação aos achados polissonográficos, temos, em geral, redução significativa da eficiência e do tempo total do sono à custa da redução do sono de ondas lentas. A redução da latência para o sono de movimentos oculares rápidos (REM) é descrita principalmente para os quadros depressivos, mas pode aparecer em outras patologias.

Flunitrazepam-induced changes in neurophysiological, behavioural, and subjective measures used to assess sedation.

INTRODUCTION: Certain features of event-related potentials (ERPs), electroencephalographic (EEG), and behavioural measures vary with differing states of alertness and/or sedation. PURPOSE: This study was conducted to investigate changes in several measures usually viewed as reflecting states of sedation/sleepiness associated with the use of a range of doses of the hypnotic benzodiazepine (BZD) flunitrazepam (FNZ). METHODS: This was a double blind, independent group design study of the effects of acute oral doses of FNZ in young healthy volunteers. Forty-eight subjects were randomly allocated to one of four groups-FNZ (0.6, 0.8, and 1.0 mg) and placebo (PLAC)-and tested prior to treatment and then in a posttreatment session close to the theoretical peak plasma concentration. ERP latencies and amplitudes were measured at midfrontal (Fz), midcentral (Cz), and midparietal (Pz) using a standard auditory oddball paradigm. EEG changes were assessed at Pz. Behavioural measures included the digit-symbol substitution test (DSST), a cancellation task (CT), and subjective ratings of alertness and attentiveness by the subjects (SUB) and the experimenter (EXP). RESULTS: FNZ led to psychomotor impairments and decreased alertness and attention; these effects were consistent with previous findings. A progressive, dose-related increase in P3 latency occurred in Fz, Cz, and Pz, and there was an increase in N1 (Fz, Cz) and N2 (Fz). N2-P3 amplitude decreased in Fz. EEG power bands beta 1 increased for the two highest doses, but no significant differences were noted in theta, delta, and alpha bands. P3 latencies, experimenter-rated levels of alertness, and DSST scores differentiated all three doses of FNZ from PLAC. CONCLUSION: The most sensitive measures used were P3 latencies of the ERPs (which varied with FNZ dose), DSST, and the experimenter-rated levels of alertness. However, we found no evidence for the assumption that one single phenomenon was reflected in all measures and different mechanisms were probably involved. Further experiments will be needed for more in-depth probing of the finer mechanisms underlying sedation/sleepiness and how they affect behavioural and eletrophysiological measures of the central nervous system (CNS) function.

Efeitos neurofisiológicos e comportamentais do zolpidem em voluntários normais / Neurophysiological and behavioral effects of zolpidem in normal female volunteers

0 zolpidem (Z), derivado imidazopiridínico, é um hipnótico bioquimicamente distinto dos benzodiazepínicos (BDZs) e que, a princípio, se liga com maior especificidade ao receptor BDZ do tipo BDZ1, ou w1. 0 presente estudo teve como objetivo investigar os efeitos agudos de doses orais clínicas de Z em voluntárias normais jovens nos potenciais evocados ligados a eventos (ERP), eletrencefalograma (EEG) e medidas comportamentais. 0 estudo foi duplo-cego em grupos independentes de tratamento. As participantes foram alocados aleatoriamente em três grupos: Z (5 e 10 mg) e placebo (P) e foram testadas antes e após o tratamento. As latências e amplitudes do ERP foram medidas em Fz, Cz e Pz, utilizando o paradigma "oddball" auditivo. As medidas comportamentais incluíram evocaçao imediata e tardia de uma estória, o DSST, um teste de cancelamento, e escalas de avaliaçoes de sensaçoes subjetivas (do experimentador e do sujeito). Foram descritos aumentos de latência dos ERPs (N200 e P300); reduçao da amplitude interpico N200-P300 e aumento das amplitudes N100-P200 e P200-N200; aumento da potência da banda beta no EEG; prejuízo no desempenho psicomotor e na recordaçao da estória e efeitos subjetivos compatíveis com drogas depressoras. Os resultados obtidos foram semelhantes aos já descritos com BDZs (exceto aumento de algumas amplitudes de ERPs), o que sugere que a ligaçao preferencial ao receptor BDZ1 nao caracterizaria esta droga como tendo um perfil diferencial e que todos os cuidados relacionados ao comprometimento da cogniçao que cercam a prescriçao do BDZs deveriam ser tomados também com o zolpidem