Alpacas fed calcium propionate seem to moderate their energy intake.

Alpacas have evolved digestive and metabolic adaptations that enable them to survive in environments where the available feed varies in nutritional quality. Alpacas are thought to derive glucose from the deamination of amino acids in the liver, rather than via the conversion of propionate like true ruminants. Because fibre growth is dependent on the availability of absorbed amino acids, alpacas using amino acids as a source of energy should leave less amino acids available for fibre growth. If alpacas were to obtain glucose from a source of propionate, such as calcium propionate, the dependence on amino acids would be reduced leaving more available for fibre growth. Calcium propionate was added to the ration fed to 32 alpaca wethers, and fibre production was measured to monitor important fibre attributes in response to calcium propionate. Although the diets supplemented with calcium propionate should have provided more energy than the diets without calcium propionate, the metabolisable energy intake of all animals was similar (p = 0.278). It seems that rather than sparing amino acids, the alpacas regulated their energy intake and refused to consume the additional energy offered as calcium propionate. Consequently, they produced less fibre, and the diameter of their fibre was smaller than those alpacas that were not fed calcium propionate. It seems that alpacas rely on their digestive and metabolic adaptations to efficiently obtain and conserve energy for their survival.

Risk and protective factors of adolescent exclusive snus users compared to non-users of tobacco, exclusive smokers and dual users of snus and cigarettes.

The use of snus is increasing in Norway. In this study we examined differences between adolescents who were exclusive snus users, and adolescent non-users, smokers and dual users of snus and cigarettes on a number of psychosocial factors, categorized as risk variables and protective variables associated with involvement in health compromising behavior. We applied separate logistic regression models, where exclusive snus users (n=740) were compared with non-users (n=904), smokers (n=219), and dual users (n=367). Compared to non-users, the group of exclusive snus users was associated with variables traditionally predicting health risk behavior, such as smoking friends (OR=1.74, SD 1.27-2.38) and truancy (OR=2.12, SD 1.65-2.78). Compared to smokers, exclusive snus users were related to variables traditionally associated with protection against involvement in health risk behavior, e.g. higher academic orientation (OR=1.66, SD 1.12-2.45). Associations with protective factors were also observed when exclusive snus users were compared with dual users. While the group of exclusive snus users was associated with a pattern of psychosocial risk compared to non-users, they showed a more conventional pattern when compared to smokers and dual users. The group of exclusive snus users may be described on a continuum varying from psychosocial risk factors to protective factors of risk involvement depending on the group of comparison.

Environmental tobacco smoke exposure of young children--attitudes and health-risk awareness in the Nordic countries.

AIMS: To assess attitudes towards environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) and health-risk awareness regarding the potential hazards of ETS for children among parents of young children in the Nordic countries. Also to investigate to what extent these factors are related to ETS exposure of the children. DESIGN: A cross-sectional community-based survey using an anonymous mailed questionnaire. PARTICIPANTS: Parents of children aged 3 years at the time of selection from a random sample of 5500 households in the Nordic countries (Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Iceland and Finland). MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Smoking status of parents, weekly ETS exposure of children within and outside the home, health-risk awareness and attitudes regarding the potential hazards of passive smoking. FINDINGS: Two in three parents who smoked did not recognize the increased risk for an inner ear infection and approximately 50% were not aware of the role of parental smoking in recruiting smokers. One in two smokers tended to agree or agreed that an act should be passed which forbids all indoor smoking in the vicinity of children. After adjustment for covariates, the level of health-risk awareness about ETS was significantly related to no ETS exposure within and outside the home. CONCLUSION: The main findings indicate that educating parents about the established health risks of ETS for their children may significantly reduce children's exposure to ETS. An increased effort is needed to educate parents who smoke on the potential health risks of ETS for their children.

Tobacco use by early adolescents in Norway.

BACKGROUND: This study examined trends in the prevalence of smoking and snuff use among Norwegian adolescents in lower secondary school (ages 13-15 years) from a national survey conducted every 5 years between 1975 and 1995. METHODS: Pupils completed a brief written questionnaire on tobacco use and related information. Local school administrators coordinated data collection and forwarded a sample of completed questionnaires to the National Council on Tobacco and Health for compilation and analysis. Effects for age, gender and survey year were examined using logistic regression analysis. Overall, 24,127 pupils in five different cohorts were included. RESULTS: Smoking was highest in 1975 when 45.5% of youth reported smoking either daily or occasionally (figures adjusted for age and gender). Smoking declined each year thereafter through to 1990 (23.6%) but increased in 1995 (26.0%), primarily due to an increase in occasional smoking. Like smoking, snuff use declined between 1985 and 1990 but increased in 1995. All changes across survey years were statistically significant. Smoking was higher among girls than boys, while snuff use was much higher among boys. CONCLUSION: Several hypotheses that might account for the recent increase were examined with the most likely factor being Norway's low allocation of resources for educational interventions and public information campaigns during the years studied. However, in the past 2 years Norway has undertaken a number of new tobacco control initiatives that may result in reversal of the most recent trends.

[Treating tobacco addiction. Praxis and barriers amongst Icelandic general practitioners.].

OBJECTIVE: To assess praxis and identify the most common barriers for engaging in tobacco prevention in general practice in the Nordic countries. MATERIAL AND METHODS: All 167 practicing general practitioners in Iceland received a questionnaire at home assessing praxis and barriers for systematic involvement in tobacco prevention. RESULTS: The over all response rate was 77%. Few general practitioners asked patients if they smoked if the patient had no smoking related symptoms. Few supported patients who wanted to stop smoking. However, a big majority agreed that tobacco prevention was a part of their job. The main reasons for not engaging in tobacco prevention was lack of time and the feeling that the time spent may not be worth the effort since few patients quit. A big majority stated that they would prefer to reefer smokers to smoking cessation specialist. CONCLUSIONS: Smoking cessation expertise needs to be more accessible to Icelandic patients and doctors.

[Do health personnel talk about passive smoking with parents of small children?]. / Snakker helsepersonell med småbarnsforeldre om passiv røyking?

INTRODUCTION: Almost seven out of ten parents who smoke state that they have never received information on passive smoking from health personnel when they bring their children in for routine medical examination. We examined what GPs, doctors and nurses at mother-and-child clinics and midwives reported. MATERIAL AND METHODS: A self-administered questionnaire focusing on practice as regards the matter of passive smoking and children was mailed to a representative sample of 1050 GPs, the senior midwives at Norway's 77 maternity departments, 492 senior public health nurses, and health personnel at 1024 mother-and-child clinics. The response rate varied from 71% (GPs) to 82% (senior midwives). RESULTS: 70% of the personnel at mother-and-child clinics less often than "always" ask about exposure to passive smoking. 60% of the senior midwives report that the department's personnel less than "to a large extent" allocate time to talk with parents about passive smoking. 40% of the GPs and 50% of the paediatricians say that they "never" bring up the matter of passive smoking when they examine small children and do not know whether members of the household smoke or not. The rest of the GPs bring up the matter in 46% of consultations and the rest of the paediatricians in 63% of consultations. When the child has symptoms that can be associated with passive smoking, the GPs discuss the parents' smoking habits in 88% of the consultations and paediatricians in 100% of consultations. INTERPRETATION: Only to a small extent do health personnel use their opportunities of motivating parents to change their smoking habits for the sake of the health of their children. Smoking is only brought up by professionals as a matter routine when the children develop symptoms of exposure to tobacco smoke.

[Why do health personnel neglect to talk about passive smoking with parents of small children?]. / Hvorfor unnlater helsepersonell å snakke med småbarnsforeldre om passiv røyking?

BACKGROUND: Health personnel make only moderate efforts at motivating parents to establish a smoke-free indoor environment for babies and infants. It is only when children show symptoms of exposure to tobacco smoke that they routinely raise the question of passive smoking during consultations with the parents. We wanted to find out why so many neglect to raise the matter when there is still time to prevent injury to the child. MATERIAL AND METHODS: A pre-categorised questionnaire on possible obstacles to involvement in the matter was mailed to a representative sample of 1050 GPs, the senior midwives at Norway's 77 maternity departments, 492 senior public health nurses, and personnel at 1024 mother-and-child clinics. The response rate varied from 71% (GPs) to 82% (senior midwives). RESULTS: Public health nurses, midwives and doctors at the clinics regard it as part of their work to talk to parents about the possible effects of passive smoking on their children's health. The obstacles are a feeling of embarrassment at raising the matter, and not knowing how to talk to the parents about the problem. Even so, a clear majority experience a positive response from smoking parents when they discuss how to prevent the children from inhaling tobacco smoke. Among the GPs the main reason for not raising the matter is lack of time, followed by embarrassment at taking it up and lack of knowledge about the health risks. INTERPRETATION: Health personnel seem to need training in conversation techniques in this connection.

[Prevalence of smoking among high school teachers and students in Norway]. / Elevers og laereres røyking i videregående skole i Norge.

The Ministry of Health and Social Affairs has defined "smoke-free schools" and "role models" as priority objectives in a document describing the national strategy to prevent the harmful effects of tobacco. We have investigated smoking policies in upper secondary schools, and to what extent policies support these objectives. Heads of Schools or Counsellors at all 487 upper secondary schools in Norway were contacted by telephone. Up to five calls were placed to reach the right person. A total of 432 interviews were conducted (90% response) in the course of December 1998. 85% of upper secondary schools permit the teachers and 90% permit the students to smoke in the school area. At 35% of the schools students and teachers smoke together on a daily basis. There are geographical differences in levels of restriction. 20% of the schools have prepared a plan of action against use of tobacco. Compared with schools without such a plan, smoking is less frequent among both teachers and students, and tobacco prevention activities are given higher priority. We conclude that public authorities should introduce a set of universal rules for smoking among students and teachers in the upper secondary school.

[How to enforce the prohibition of sales of tobacco to minors?]. / Hvordan håndheves 18-årsgrensen for kjøp av tobakk?

The introduction in 1996 of a ban on the sale of tobacco to persons under the age of 18 in Norway does not seem to have reduced the extent of smoking among minors. One reason may be that Norway's 20,000 tobacconists have not respected the age limit. A representative sample of households was randomly selected from a database containing all telephone numbers in Norway. Of the 6,135 households contacted, 2,054 households contained young people aged 13 to 20 years. Of these, 1,011 persons participated in the telephone survey. 75% of the tobacco smoked by 13-17-year-olds is bought by the minors themselves or by other minors. 70% of smokers under the age of 18 report not being asked how old they were when they bought or tried to buy tobacco. Only 48% had been denied purchase of tobacco during the last three months. The systematic anti-smoking efforts being instituted in the schools would be much more effective if they were backed up by the tobacconists through effective enforcement of the 18-year age limit for the purchase of tobacco.

[How to reduce illegal sales of tobacco to minors?]. / Hvordan redusere salg av tobakk til mindreårige?

Of the tobacco consumed by young people between the ages of 13 and 17 in Norway, 75% is bought by minors. The Ministry of Health has requested the tobacconist's trade association to improve the enforcement of the 18-year age limit for the purchase of tobacco. After identifying 122 scientific articles through searches in Medline and Sociological Abstracts, we have reviewed the scientific literature on the effects of compliance-enhancing measures designed by the authorities in other countries. Four types of measures, including sanctions against tobacconist, have been used to improve age limit compliance. Voluntary agreements lead to higher tobacconist compliance; however, 20% of them still sell tobacco to minors. This is enough for young people not to report changes in availability or changes in smoking habits. Frequent spot tests, threats of fines or the revoking of licence have led to fewer young smokers. We conclude that the present Norwegian efforts at increasing tobacconist compliance are unlikely to lead to fewer smokers among minors.

To what extent do parents strive to protect their children from environmental tobacco smoke in the Nordic countries? A population-based study.

OBJECTIVE: To assess to what extent Nordic parents strive to protect their children from environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) at home. DESIGN: A cross-sectional study using an anonymous questionnaire. SUBJECTS AND SETTING: A stratified, random sample of 5500 households containing a child born during 1992, including 1500 households in Denmark and 1000 households in each of the countries of Finland, Iceland, Norway, and Sweden. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Smoking status of parents, prevalence and magnitude of weekly ETS exposure, rules regarding smoking in the home. RESULTS: 82% of current smokers reported having tried to change their smoking behaviour for the sake of their children. Of all parents who answered the questionnaire, 75% reported having introduced some rules to limit ETS in their home. In households where at least one parent smoked, 57% reported that children were exposed to ETS at home. Child exposure to ETS was most prevalent in single-parent households and in households in which parents had lower levels of education. However, these parents were not less likely than other smoking parents to report having tried to change their smoking behaviour for the sake of their children. CONCLUSION: Environmental tobacco smoke at home is still a problem for many children in the Nordic countries. However, most smoking parents reported having made efforts to change their smoking behaviour for the sake of their children; and in approximately half of all households containing at least one daily smoker, parents reported protecting their children from ETS exposure in the home. Although actual exposure may be higher owing to possible under-reporting of ETS, our results indicate a general awareness in the Nordic countries of the potential negative effects of ETS on children.

Children's residential exposure to environmental tobacco smoke varies greatly between the Nordic countries.

OBJECTIVE: To assess similarities and differences in the Nordic countries regarding ETS (environmental tobacco smoke) exposure in young children. DESIGN: A population-based cross-sectional study comprising a randomly selected sample of 5,500 households which included a child born in 1992. Data were collected using a mailed anonymous questionnaire. RESULTS: While the prevalence of household smoking was similar in all countries, there was a great difference between the countries with regard to child ETS exposure. Finnish parents were more likely than all other Nordic parents to protect their children from ETS and the situation was worst in Denmark and Iceland, where almost half of all households, and nine out of ten households containing daily smokers, exposed their children. Approximately eight out of ten current and former smokers in all countries stated that they had made efforts to change their smoking habits because of their children.

[The use of tobacco and smoking habits--is Norway lagging behind?]. / Utviklingen i tobakksforbruk og røykevaner--ligger Norge etter?

A comparative analysis of smoking habits, based on data from three different sources, shows that the present level of tobacco consumption in Norway is at a mid-Nordic level, but lower in a European perspective. There has been a 25% decline in per capita consumption of tobacco since the mid-1970s, and the decrease has been most pronounced during the 1990s. The current rate of decline is the same as in the other Nordic countries. The prevalence of smoking among men is at present lower in Norway than in most European countries outside the Nordic ones. Since the mid-1950s, the prevalence of daily smoking among Norwegian men has decreased from approximately 70% to 35% in 1997. However, within the last ten years the decline has levelled out and smoking among men has been stable in recent years. Smoking among women is more widespread in Norway than in most European countries. The number of female smokers reached a peak around 1970. Since the 1970s, the prevalence of smoking among women has been stable. The prevalence of daily smoking in the age-group 16-24 years is currently at a mid-European level. However, the decline observed during the late 1970s and the first half of the 1980s does seem to have levelled out during the 1990s.

[Smoking habits since 1910 among Norwegian men and women born after 1890]. / Røykevaner siden 1910 blant norske menn og kvinner født etter 1890.

This article describes smoking habits among Norwegian men and women born between 1890 and 1974. In order to follow the smoking habits in groups which included the same persons throughout the observation period, the proportion of smokers in five-year birth cohorts of men and women was tabulated by age or calendar year of birth. The percentage of smokers was more than five times higher in men than in women born during the period 1890-94, but the gap declined with later year of birth until no gender difference existed between men and women born after 1950. Male smoking peaked in the 1950s with 76-78% smokers in men born in the period 1915-34. The highest proportion of female smokers was observed around 1970, when 52% smoked among those born in the 1940s. Since 1955, smoking has declined in all cohorts of men, whereas the decline in female smoking started in the early 1970s.

Lifetime smoking habits among Norwegian men and women born between 1890 and 1974.

BACKGROUND: The aims of the present study were to provide lifetime smoking data for epidemiological studies of tobacco-induced cancer in Norway, and to sort out the influence of age, gender, and period on the population's smoking habits in this century. METHODS: We used annual surveys of smoking habits from 1954 to 1992, and individual lifetime smoking histories collected in 1965 from a population sample born 1893-1927. The population was divided into 5-year sex-and-birth cohorts born between 1890 and 1974, and smoking habits were described as the proportion of current smokers in 5-year age groups between 15 and 74 years old. We also estimated the average tobacco consumption per smoker by calendar year after 1930. RESULTS: The proportion of smokers increased with each succeeding cohort of men and women until the 1950s, when the highest proportion of male smokers (76-78%) was observed among those born 1915-1934. This peak was followed by a decline in both men and women from 1955 to 1965. A second peak occurred in women around 1970, during which the highest proportion of smokers (52%) was observed in women born 1940-1949. From 1970 to 1990 smoking has declined in all cohorts of men and women, but at a slower rate after 1980 in the younger cohorts. The smoking proportion was more than five times higher in men than in women born 1890-1894, but the gap has declined with each succeeding cohort until no gender difference was present among those born after 1950. The average tobacco consumption per smoker between 1930 and 1950 remained fairly constant around 8.5 g per day in male smokers and 6 g per day in female smokers, followed by a continuous increase to 15 g per day in men and 12 g in women in 1985. CONCLUSIONS: The smoking habits in Norway appear to have been strongly influenced by social changes and the increasing awareness of the health hazards of smoking. Each cohort's response to these events has depended on the members' age and sex at the time.