Ammonia-responsive chitosan/polymethacrylamide double network hydrogels with high-stretchability, fatigue resistance and anti-freezing for real-time chicken breast spoilage monitoring.

Hydrogels are a promising option for detecting food spoilage in humid conditions, but current indicators are prone to mechanical flaws, posing a concern for packaging systems that require strong mechanical properties. Herein, a double network hydrogel was prepared by polymerizing methacrylamide in a chitosan system with aluminum chloride and glycerol. The resulting hydrogel demonstrated high stretchability (strain >1500 %), notch insensitivity, excellent fatigue resistance, and exceptional anti-freezing capabilities even at -21 °C. When incorporating bromothymol blue (BB) or methyl red (MR), or mixtures of these dyes into the hydrogels as indicators, they exhibited sensitive colorimetric responses to pH and NH3 levels at different temperatures. Hydrogels immobilizing BB to MR ratios of 1:1 and 1:2 displayed clearer and more sensitive color responses when packed into chicken breast, with a sensitivity level of 1.5 ppm of total volatile basic nitrogen (TVB-N). This color response correlated positively with the accumulation of TVB-N on the packaging during storage at both 25 °C and 4 °C, providing sensitive indications of chicken breast deterioration. Overall, the developed hydrogels and indicators demonstrate enhanced performance characteristics, including excellent mechanical strength and highly NH3-sensitive color responses, making significant contributions to the food spoilage detection and intelligent packaging systems field.

Effects of mild alternate wetting and drying irrigation and mid-season drainage on CH4 and N2O emissions in rice cultivation.

Rice, one of the major sources of CH4 and N2O emissions, is also the largest consumer of water resources. Mild alternate wetting and drying (AWD) irrigation is widely adopted to save irrigation water resources and maintain rice production, but its effects on CH4 and N2O emissions are unclear. In addition, previous studies have revealed different effects of mid-season drainage on global warming potential (GWP), owing to the different criteria used. In this study, a pot experiment was conducted to investigate the effects of mild AWD irrigation and mid-season drainage (a specific soil moisture) on CH4 and N2O emissions during rice cultivation. Four water management systems were applied: AWD + D0 (mild AWD irrigation without mid-season drainage), AWD + D1 (mild AWD irrigation with mid-season drainage), CF + D0 (continuous flooding without mid-season drainage) and CF + D1 (continuous flooding with mid-season drainage); nitrogen was applied at two levels (N90 and N180) along with each treatment. The results showed that mild AWD irrigation reduced CH4 cumulative emissions by an average of 87.1% but increased N2O cumulative emissions by an average of 280% compared to the values observed with CF irrigation. Mid-season drainage did not affect N2O emissions but interrupted CH4 fluxes and significantly reduced CH4 cumulative emissions. CH4 and N2O cumulative emissions were reduced by an average of 25.0% and 54.2%, respectively, with N90 application compared to values observed with N180 application. Unexpectedly, mild AWD irrigation did not reduce GWP and yield-scaled GWP unlike CF irrigation because a high N2O emission peak occurred during mild AWD irrigation. Furthermore, we observed an obvious trade-off between CH4 and N2O. We suggest that maintaining flooding during nitrogen application but applying mild AWD irrigation for the remaining period may be helpful in reducing CH4 and N2O emissions and GWP.