First finding of Streptococcus phocae infections in mink (Neovison vison).

Streptococcus phocae infection has been described in salmon, sea otters, and several families of pinnipeds. The pathology of the infected animals has mainly been located in the respiratory tract and reproductive system, and with indications of septicemia. In this study, we report the finding of S. phocae in diagnostic material from three unrelated cases of farmed mink. Since S. phocae initially has been described in pinnipeds, two isolates from wild harbor seals were included. All isolates originated from Denmark. To our knowledge, this is the first report of S. phocae infection in mink. The animals (three mink, two seals) were necropsied, and samples were collected for bacteriology, virology, and histopathology. Additionally, the S. phocae isolates were whole genome sequenced and compared to sequences of previously reported isolates from other host species. S. phocae was isolated from the lungs of one mink and one seal with bacteremia, and from one seal with pneumonia. The two remaining mink had dermal infections on the paws and S. phocae was isolated from the lesions. The analysis of the sequence data showed that the three mink isolates and one seal isolate were closely related. Further investigation is needed to conclude whether S. phocae is establishing as commensal in farmed mink and to uncover the infection related pathology in mink. Streptococcus phocae has been described as an emerging pathogen in other species, therefore future awareness and surveillance of this pathogen is crucial.

Mycoplasma bovis in Nordic European Countries: Emergence and Dominance of a New Clone.

Mycoplasma (M.) bovis is an important pathogen of cattle implicated in a broad range of clinical manifestations that adversely impacts livestock production worldwide. In the absence of a safe, effective commercial vaccine in Europe, the reported reduced susceptibility to antimicrobials for this organism has contributed to difficulties in controlling infection. Despite global presence, some countries have only recently experienced outbreaks of this pathogen. In the present study, M. bovis isolates collected in Denmark between 1981 and 2016 were characterized to determine (i) genetic diversity and phylogenetic relationships using whole genome sequencing and various sequence-based typing methods and (ii) patterns of antimicrobial resistance compared to other European isolates. The M. bovis population in Denmark was found to be highly homogeneous genomically and with respect to the antimicrobial resistance profile. Previously dominated by an old genotype shared by many other countries (ST17 in the PubMLST legacy scheme), a new predominant type represented by ST94-adh1 has emerged. The same clone is also found in Sweden and Finland, where M. bovis introduction is more recent. Although retrieved from the Netherlands, it appears absent from France, two countries with a long history of M. bovis infection where the M. bovis population is more diverse.

Microbiological quality of mink feed raw materials and feed production area.

BACKGROUND: The quality of mink feed and raw ingredients affect health and growth. The objectives of this study were to examine the microbiological quality of ready-to-eat mink feed and its raw ingredients, screen the plant part of the feed for mycotoxins, and determine the hygiene of the production environment in the feed processing facilities. The results of the study are important for identification of critical steps in the feed production and for formulation of recommendations for improvements of production processes to obtain better quality feed. Feed and swab samples were taken at three Danish mink feed producers October 2016 and May 2017, respectively. Viable counts, detection of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), influenza virus and filamentous fungi were performed together with qualitative chemical analyses for bioactive fungal metabolites and mycotoxins. Swab samples were analyzed for total viable counts. RESULTS: Viable counts varied between 7.2 × 102 and 9.3 × 107 cfu/g in raw ingredients and between 107 and 109 cfu/cm2 on different surfaces at the feed production facilities. A pork meat product, pork haemoglobin, pork liver and a poultry mix was found positive for MRSA, while monophasic Salmonella [4,5,12:i:-] was detected in a pork meat product. Neither MRSA nor Salmonella was detected in any ready-to-eat feed. Influenza A virus was not detected in any sample. Filamentous fungi were detected in all analysed samples of ready-to-eat feed while dihydro-demethyl-sterigmatocystin was found in almost 50% of all ready-to-eat feed samples and in 80% of the sugar beet pulp. Fumonisins and other Fusarium toxins were found especially in corn gluten meal and extruded barley and wheat. CONCLUSIONS: Mink feed contained a cocktail of mycotoxins and bacteria, which may not per se cause clinical disease, but may affect organ function and animal performance and well-being.

Bovine mastitis bacteria resolved by MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry.

Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS) is a fast and reliable method to identify the most common pathogenic bacteria in humans and animals. The goals of this study were to amend a commercial database with additional species, evaluate the amended database for identification of bacterial genera and species causing bovine mastitis, and describe the plethora of species involved. In total, 500 udder pathogenic isolates were subjected to MALDI-TOF MS using bacterial or fungal colony material; 93.5% could be identified to the species level, and 6.5% were identified only to the genus level. Isolates identified to the genus level required further identification to the species level by conventional methods or 16S rDNA sequencing. Mass spectra from verified species were used to expand the MALDI-TOF MS database to improve future identification ability. A total of 24 genera and 61 species were identified in this study. Identified isolates were mainly staphylococci, streptococci, Enterobacteriaceae, and coryneforme bacteria. In conclusion, MALDI-TOF MS is a powerful, rapid, and reliable technique to identify the most common microorganisms causing bovine mastitis, and the database can be continuously expanded and improved with additional species.

Genome analysis of Clostridium perfringens isolates from healthy and necrotic enteritis infected chickens and turkeys.

OBJECTIVE: Clostridium perfringens causes gastrointestinal diseases in both humans and domestic animals. Type A strains expressing the NetB toxin are the main cause of necrotic enteritis (NE) in chickens, which has remarkable impact on animal welfare and production economy in the international poultry industry. Three pathogenicity loci NELoc-1, -2 and -3 and a collagen adhesion gene cnaA have been found to be associated with NE in chickens, whereas the presence of these has not been investigated in diseased turkeys. The purpose was to investigate the virulence associated genome content and the genetic relationship among 30 C. perfringens isolates from both healthy and NE infected chickens and turkeys, applying whole-genome sequencing. RESULTS: NELoc-1, -3, netB and cnaA were significantly associated with NE isolates from chickens, whereas only NELoc-2 was commonly observed in both diseased turkeys and chickens. A putative collagen adhesion gene that encodes a von Willebrand Factor (vWF) domain was identified in all diseased turkeys and designated as cnaD. The phylogenetic analysis based on single nucleotide polymorphisms showed that the isolates generally were not closely related. These results indicate that virulence factors and pathogenicity loci associated with NE in chickens are not important to the same extent in diseased turkeys except for NELoc-2. A putative collagen adhesion gene which potentially could be of importance in regard to the NE pathogenesis in turkeys was identified and need to be further investigated. Thus, the pathogenesis of NE in turkeys appears to be different from that of broiler chickens.

Spread of avian pathogenic Escherichia coli ST117 O78:H4 in Nordic broiler production.

BACKGROUND: Escherichia coli infections known as colibacillosis constitute a considerable challenge to poultry farmers worldwide, in terms of decreased animal welfare and production economy. Colibacillosis is caused by avian pathogenic E. coli (APEC). APEC strains are extraintestinal pathogenic E. coli and have in general been characterized as being a genetically diverse population. In the Nordic countries, poultry farmers depend on import of Swedish broiler breeders which are part of a breeding pyramid. During 2014 to 2016, an increased occurrence of colibacillosis on Nordic broiler chicken farms was reported. The aim of this study was to investigate the genetic diversity among E. coli isolates collected on poultry farms with colibacillosis issues, using whole genome sequencing. METHODS: Hundred and fourteen bacterial isolates from both broilers and broiler breeders were whole genome sequenced. The majority of isolates were collected from poultry with colibacillosis on Nordic farms. Subsequently, comparative genomic analyses were carried out. This included in silico typing (sero- and multi-locus sequence typing), identification of virulence and resistance genes and phylogenetic analyses based on single nucleotide polymorphisms. RESULTS: In general, the characterized poultry isolates constituted a genetically diverse population. However, the phylogenetic analyses revealed a major clade of 47 closely related ST117 O78:H4 isolates. The isolates in this clade were collected from broiler chickens and breeders with colibacillosis in multiple Nordic countries. They clustered together with a human ST117 isolate and all carried virulence genes that previously have been associated with human uropathogenic E. coli. CONCLUSIONS: The investigation revealed a lineage of ST117 O78:H4 isolates collected in different Nordic countries from diseased broilers and breeders. The data indicate that the closely related ST117 O78:H4 strains have been transferred vertically through the broiler breeding pyramid into distantly located farms across the Nordic countries.

Streptococcus agalactiae Serotype IV in Humans and Cattle, Northern Europe1.

Streptococcus agalactiae is an emerging pathogen of nonpregnant human adults worldwide and a reemerging pathogen of dairy cattle in parts of Europe. To learn more about interspecies transmission of this bacterium, we compared contemporaneously collected isolates from humans and cattle in Finland and Sweden. Multilocus sequence typing identified 5 sequence types (STs) (ST1, 8, 12, 23, and 196) shared across the 2 host species, suggesting possible interspecies transmission. More than 54% of the isolates belonged to those STs. Molecular serotyping and pilus island typing of those isolates did not differentiate between populations isolated from different host species. Isolates from humans and cattle differed in lactose fermentation, which is encoded on the accessory genome and represents an adaptation to the bovine mammary gland. Serotype IV-ST196 isolates were obtained from multiple dairy herds in both countries. Cattle may constitute a previously unknown reservoir of this strain.

Leuconostoc rapi sp. nov., isolated from sous-vide-cooked rutabaga.

A Gram-stain-positive, ovoid, lactic acid bacterium, strain LMG 27676T, was isolated from a spoiled sous-vide-cooked rutabaga. 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis indicated that the novel strain belongs to the genus Leuconostoc, with Leuconostoc kimchii and Leuconostoc miyukkimchii as the nearest neighbours (99.1 and 98.8% 16S rRNA gene sequence similarity towards the type strain, respectively). Phylogenetic analysis of the 16S rRNA gene, multilocus sequence analysis of the pheS, rpoA and atpA genes, and biochemical and genotypic characteristics allowed differentiation of strain LMG 27676T from all established species of the genus Leuconostoc. Strain LMG 27676T ( = R-50029T = MHB 277T = DSM 27776T) therefore represents the type strain of a novel species, for which the name Leuconostoc rapi sp. nov. is proposed.

Heat stress adaptation induces cross-protection against lethal acid stress conditions in Arcobacter butzleri but not in Campylobacter jejuni.

The ability of many bacteria to adapt to stressful conditions may later protect them against the same type of stress (specific adaptive response) or different types of stresses (multiple adaptive response, also termed cross-protection). Arcobacter butzleri and Campylobacter jejuni are close phylogenetic relatives that occur in many foods of animal origin and have been linked with human illness (mainly diarrhoea). In the present study, sublethal stress adaptation temperatures (48 °C and 10 °C) and mild and lethal acid conditions (pH 5.0 and pH 4.0) were determined for A. butzleri and C. jejuni. In addition, it was evaluated whether these sublethal stress adaptations cause specific adaptive responses or cross-protection against subsequent mild or lethal acid stresses in these bacteria. The studies were conducted in broth adjusted to the different conditions and the results were determined by the dilution series plating method. It was shown that heat stress adapted A. butzleri (incubated for 2 h at 48 °C) were significantly more resistant to subsequent lethal acid stress (pH 4.0) than non-adapted cells at the 1 h time-point (p < 0.01 in Wilcoxon rank sum test). No specific adaptive responses against the stresses in A. butzleri or C. jejuni and no cross-protection in C. jejuni were found. The ability of heat stressed A. butzleri to tolerate later lethal acid conditions should be taken into account when designing new food decontamination and processing strategies.

Extraintestinal pathogenic Escherichia coli in poultry meat products on the Finnish retail market.

BACKGROUND: Extraintestinal pathogenic Escherichia coli bacteria (ExPEC) exist as commensals in the human intestines and can infect extraintestinal sites and cause septicemia. The transfer of ExPEC from poultry to humans and the role of poultry meat as a source of ExPEC in human disease have been discussed previously. The aim of the present study was to provide insight into the properties of ExPEC in poultry meat products on the Finnish retail market with special attention to their prevalence, virulence and phylogenetic profiles. Furthermore, the isolates were screened for possible ESBL producers and their resistance to nalidixic acid and ciprofloxacin was tested. METHODS: The presence of ExPEC in 219 marinated and non-marinated raw poultry meat products from retail shops has been analyzed. One E. coli strain per product was analyzed further for phylogenetic groups and possession of ten virulence genes associated with ExPEC bacteria (kpsMT K1, ibeA, astA, iss, irp2, papC, iucD, tsh, vat and cva/cv) using PCR methods. The E. coli strains were also screened phenotypically for the production of extended-spectrum ß-lactamase (ESBL) and the susceptibility of 48 potential ExPEC isolates for nalidixic acid and ciprofloxacin was tested. RESULTS: E. coli was isolated from 207 (94.5%) of 219 poultry meat products. The most common phylogenetic groups were D (50.7%), A (37.7%), and B2 (7.7%). Based on virulence factor gene PCR, 23.2% of the strains were classified as ExPEC. Two ExPEC strains (1%) belonged to [O1] B2 svg+ (specific for virulent subgroup) group, which has been implicated in multiple forms of ExPEC disease. None of the ExPEC strains was resistant to ciprofloxacin or cephalosporins. One isolate (2.1%) showed resistance to nalidixic acid. CONCLUSIONS: Potential ExPEC bacteria were found in 22% of marinated and non-marinated poultry meat products on the Finnish retail market and 0.9% were contaminated with E. coli [O1] B2 svg+ group. Marinades did not have an effect on the survival of ExPEC as strains from marinated and non-marinated meat products were equally often classified as ExPEC. Poultry meat products on the Finnish retail market may have zoonotic potential.

The temporal, PFGE and resistance pattern associations suggest that poultry products are only a minor source of human infections in western Finland.

In order to compare human and retail poultry meat thermophilic Campylobacter isolates originating in a regional area in Western Finland, minimum inhibitory concentration (MICs) for six antimicrobials (96 isolates) and pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) (102 isolates) were analysed. Campylobacter spp. were detected in 10.5% out of 305 fresh poultry products studied; 29 (90.5%) isolates were identified as Campylobacter jejuni. Among the 70 human isolates, 66 (94.3%) isolates were identified as C. jejuni. Only one C. jejuni domestic poultry isolate showed resistance (ampicillin), whereas domestic human C. jejuni isolates were more commonly resistant to ciprofloxacin, nalidixic acid, ampicillin and tetracycline. The resistance in foreign human isolates was significantly more common than among domestic isolates. PFGE analysis with KpnI restriction enzyme resulted in 59 different PFGE types among the poultry and human isolates. Three types were detected first in poultry meat and thereafter during the following month in domestic human samples, whereas the other conjoint types were detected only after many months. This study suggests that poultry products play only a minor role in human campylobacteriosis in the study area and that the resistance found in domestic human isolates is not likely related to retail poultry meat products.

A longitudinal study of Campylobacter distribution in a turkey production chain.

BACKGROUND: Campylobacter is the most common cause of bacterial enteritis worldwide. Handling and eating of contaminated poultry meat has considered as one of the risk factors for human campylobacteriosis. Campylobacter contamination can occur at all stages of a poultry production cycle. The objective of this study was to determine the occurrence of Campylobacter during a complete turkey production cycle which lasts for 1,5 years of time. For detection of Campylobacter, a conventional culture method was compared with a PCR method. Campylobacter isolates from different types of samples have been identified to the species level by a multiplex PCR assay. METHODS: Samples (N = 456) were regularly collected from one turkey parent flock, the hatchery, six different commercial turkey farms and from 11 different stages at the slaughterhouse. For the detection of Campylobacter, a conventional culture and a PCR method were used. Campylobacter isolates (n = 143) were identified to species level by a multiplex PCR assay. RESULTS: No Campylobacter were detected in either the samples from the turkey parent flock or from hatchery samples using the culture method. PCR detected Campylobacter DNA in five faecal samples and one fluff and eggshell sample. Six flocks out of 12 commercial turkey flocks where found negative at the farm level but only two were negative at the slaughterhouse. CONCLUSION: During the brooding period Campylobacter might have contact with the birds without spreading of the contamination within the flock. Contamination of working surfaces and equipment during slaughter of a Campylobacter positive turkey flock can persist and lead to possible contamination of negative flocks even after the end of the day's cleaning and desinfection. Reduction of contamination at farm by a high level of biosecurity control and hygiene may be one of the most efficient ways to reduce the amount of contaminated poultry meat in Finland. Due to the low numbers of Campylobacter in the Finnish turkey production chain, enrichment PCR seems to be the optimal detection method here.

PCR assay for the detection of Campylobacter in marinated and non-marinated poultry products.

During a period of 9 months, 194 marinated and non-marinated poultry products were collected from retail shops in a defined area in Western Finland and tested for Campylobacter spp. using a conventional enrichment culture and Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) method. For marinated poultry products, the study involved modification of a commercial DNA isolation method. Using either a conventional culture or PCR method, a total of 25 (12.9%) of all investigated samples were Campylobacter positive. In marinated poultry products, Campylobacter was detected at a prevalence of 21.1% and 9.5% in turkey and chicken products, respectively. In August, there was a peak with 28.9% positive Campylobacter samples. Campylobacter inoculation tests were carried out to test the detection limit of both methods. The PCR method used is faster than microbiological analyses. However, enrichment of the samples is necessary due to the low occurrence of Campylobacter spp. in retail Finnish poultry products.

Lactobacillus sakei/curvatus is the prevailing lactic acid bacterium group in spoiled maatjes herring.

A total of 164 lactic acid bacteria (LAB) isolated from spoiled maatjes herring stored in air and under modified atmosphere at 4 or 10 degrees C were characterised and identified using an rRNA gene restriction pattern (ribotype) database. The isolates were initially grouped according to their HindIII restriction endonuclease profiles and further identified to species level using numerical analysis. Lactobacillus sakei, Lactobacillus curvatus and strains of the L. curvatus spp./Lactobacillus fuchuensis group were the main species detected. Of all the isolates, six were identified as Lactococcus spp.

Microbiological quality of maatjes herring stored in air and under modified atmosphere at 4 and 10 degrees C.

Microbiological and sensory changes of maatjes herring stored in air (experiment I) and under modified atmosphere (MAP) (experiments II and III) were evaluated during storage at 4 and 10 degrees C. Microbial (total and psychrotrophic viable bacteria, lactic acid bacteria and Enterobacteriaceae) counts and chemical analyses (chloride content, fat content, dry matter, ash and pH) were performed. A Quality Index Method (QIM) scheme developed for maatjes herring was used for sensory evaluation. The main reasons for sensory rejections at both storage temperatures were a strong rancid taste for herring stored in air (Experiment I) and a sour, bitter, rotten taste and an aftertaste like old flower water for MAP herring (Experiments II and III). A soft texture of freshly produced samples (Experiment II) was noticed. The sensory shelf-life of maatjes herring stored in air (Experiment I) was three days at both 4 and 10 degrees C. The MAP herring in Experiments II and III had a shelf-life of 5 and 6 days, respectively, at both storage temperatures. Rancidity due to oxidation of fat was the main spoilage indicator for air-stored maatjes herring. Autolytic enzymes may affect textural deterioration. The characteristic off-odour and off-taste in the MAP herring (Experiments II and III) were may well be attributable to microbial metabolism. On the day of sensory rejection, total viable counts for herring in all three experiments (Experiments I-III) stored at 4 degrees C did not reach 10(6)cfu/g, which is considered the limit of acceptability for maatjes herring given by the Dutch fishery authorities. It appears that total viable counts have minor significance in the sensory assessment of maatjes herring.

Characterization and identification of lactic acid bacteria in "morcilla de Burgos".

A total of 176 lactic acid bacteria (LAB) isolated from a typical Spanish blood sausage called "morcilla de Burgos" were identified by means of phenotypic characteristics and 16S rDNA RFLP (ribotyping). LAB were isolated from "morcilla" of different producers and in different storage periods, which includes unpackaged, vacuum and modified atmosphere packaged "morcilla" and vacuum packed and pasteurised "morcilla". The knowledge of specific spoilage bacteria of "morcilla de Burgos" will be useful to design new preservation methods to extend the shelf-life of this product. Identification made according to phenotypic and biochemical characteristics shows the majority of the isolates were heterofermentative LAB (93.2%) and eight different bacterial groups could be distinguished (A-G). Weisella viridescens was the main species detected (42%). In addition, Leuconostoc spp. (23.9%), Weissella confusa (11.4%) and Lactobacillus fructosus (5.7%) species were found. Few strains were phenotypically misidentified as Lactobacillus sanfrancisco, Pediococcus spp., Lactobacillus sakei/curvatus and Carnobacterium spp. and 11 strains remained unknown. Most of the leuconostocs were identified as Leuconostoc mesenteroides and Leuconostoc carnosum species. Ribotyping shows a quite good correlation with phenotypic methods, although it has been possible to identify 15 different clusters. W. viridescens and leuconostocs were also the predominant LAB. Strains identified as W. confusa by phenotypic characteristics were resolved in W. confusa and Weissella cibaria by ribotyping. Neither Carnobacterium piscicola nor Lb. sanfrancisco were identified by means of genotypic method. All Lb. fructosus strains and some more included in different phenotypic groups (17 strains in total) could not be associated with any reference strain (cluster VII).

Leuconostoc gelidum and Leuconostoc gasicomitatum strains dominated the lactic acid bacterium population associated with strong slime formation in an acetic-acid herring preserve.

Spoilage characterised by strong slime and gas formation affected some manufacture lots of an acetic-acid Baltic herring (Culpea haerengus membras) preserve after few weeks of storage at 0-6 degrees C. The product consisted of herring filets in acetic acid marinade containing sugar, salt, allspice and carrot slices. Microbiological analyses of the spoiled product showed high lactic acid bacterium (LAB) levels ranging from 4.5x10(8) to 2.4x10(9) CFU/g. Yeasts were not detected in any of the herring samples. Since LAB contaminants are seldom associated with fresh fish, LAB populations associated with marinade ingredients (carrots, allspice) were also analyzed. The highest LAB levels exceeding 10(7) CFU/g were detected in equilibrium modified atmosphere packaged baby carrots whereas the levels detected in the allspice samples did not exceed 4.3x10(5). A total of 176 randomly selected LAB isolates originating from herring, carrot and allspice samples were further identified to species level using a 16 and 23S rRNA gene RFLP (ribotyping) database. Leuconostoc gelidum and Leuconostoc gasicomitatum strains dominated both in the spoiled herring and carrot samples. These species are heterofermentative-producing CO(2) from glucose and they also produce dextran from sucrose. Inoculation of some commercial-herring products with spoilage-associated L. gelidum and L. gasicomitatum strains verified that these strains have the capability of producing slime and gas in herring preserves although slime formation was not as strong as in the original samples. Since L. gelidum and L. gasicomitatum strains were commonly detected in carrots, carrot slices used for the fish marinade were considered to be the probable source of these specific spoilage organisms.

Identification of lactic acid bacteria from spoiled, vacuum-packaged 'gravad' rainbow trout using ribotyping.

A total of 296 lactic acid bacteria (LAB) isolated from spoiled, vacuum-packaged 'gravad' rainbow trout stored at 3 and 8 degrees C were characterised and identified using a molecular approach. The isolates were initially grouped according to their HindIII restriction endonuclease profiles and further identified to species level using an rRNA gene restriction pattern (ribotype) identification database. Lactobacillus sakei, L. curvatus and Carnobacterium piscicola were the three main species detected. Only one isolate was identified as C. divergens. Most of the carnobacteria were found in the samples stored at 3 degrees C. The relative proportion of L. sakei was higher in the samples stored at 8 degrees C.