Prophylactic and Therapeutic HPV Vaccines: Current Scenario and Perspectives.

Persistent human papillomavirus (HPV) infection is recognized as the main cause of cervical cancer and other malignant cancers. Although early detection and treatment can be achieved by effective HPV screening methods and surgical procedures, the disease load has not been adequately mitigated yet, especially in the underdeveloped areas. Vaccine, being regarded as a more effective solution, is expected to prevent virus infection and the consequent diseases in the phases of both prevention and treatment. Currently, there are three licensed prophylactic vaccines for L1-VLPs, namely bivalent, quadrivalent and nonavalent vaccine. About 90% of HPV infections have been effectively prevented with the implementation of vaccines worldwide. However, no significant therapeutic effect has been observed on the already existed infections and lesions. Therapeutic vaccine designed for oncoprotein E6/E7 activates cellular immunity rather than focuses on neutralizing antibodies, which is considered as an ideal immune method to eliminate infection. In this review, we elaborate on the classification, mechanism, and clinical effects of HPV vaccines for disease prevention and treatment, in order to make improvements to the current situation of HPV vaccines by provoking new ideas.

Bispecific Antibodies: From Research to Clinical Application.

Bispecific antibodies (BsAbs) are antibodies with two binding sites directed at two different antigens or two different epitopes on the same antigen. The clinical therapeutic effects of BsAbs are superior to those of monoclonal antibodies (MoAbs), with broad applications for tumor immunotherapy as well as for the treatment of other diseases. Recently, with progress in antibody or protein engineering and recombinant DNA technology, various platforms for generating different types of BsAbs based on novel strategies, for various uses, have been established. More than 30 mature commercial technology platforms have been used to create and develop BsAbs based on the heterologous recombination of heavy chains and matching of light chains. The detailed mechanisms of clinical/therapeutic action have been demonstrated with these different types of BsAbs. Three kinds of BsAbs have received market approval, and more than 110 types of BsAbs are at various stages of clinical trials. In this paper, we elaborate on the classic platforms, mechanisms, and applications of BsAbs. We hope that this review can stimulate new ideas for the development of BsAbs and improve current clinical strategies.