A unit process log reduction database for water reuse practitioners.

Pathogen reduction for the purpose of human health protection is a critical function provided by water reuse systems. Pathogen reduction performance potential is dependent on a wide range of design and operational parameters. Poor understanding of pathogen reduction performance has important consequences-under treatment can jeopardize human health, while over treatment can lead to unnecessary costs and environmental impacts. Documented pathogen reduction potential of the unit processes that make up water reuse treatment trains is based on a highly dispersed and unstructured literature, creating an impediment to practitioners looking to design, model or simply better understand these systems. This review presents a database of compiled log reduction values (LRVs) and log reduction credits (LRCs) for unit processes capable of providing some level of pathogen reduction, with a focus on processes suitable for onsite non-potable water reuse systems. Where reported, we have also compiled all relevant design and operational factors associated with the LRVs and LRCs. Overall, we compiled over 1100 individual LRV data entries for 31 unit processes, and LRCs for 8 unit processes. Results show very inconsistent reporting of influencing parameters, representing a limitation to the use of some of the data. As a standalone resource, the database (included as Supplemental Information) provides water reuse practitioners with easy access to LRV and LRC data. The database is also part of a longer-term effort to optimize the balance between human health protection, potential environmental impacts and cost of water reuse treatment trains.

Onsite Non-potable Reuse for Large Buildings: Environmental and Economic Suitability as a Function of Building Characteristics and Location.

Onsite non-potable reuse (NPR) is a way for buildings to conserve water using onsite sources for uses like toilet flushing, laundry and irrigation. Although early case study results are promising, aspects like system suitability, cost and environmental performance remain difficult to quantify and compare across broad geographic contexts and variable system configurations. In this study, we evaluate four NPR system types - rainwater harvesting (RWH), air-conditioning condensate harvesting (ACH), and source-separated graywater and mixed wastewater membrane bioreactors (GWMBR, WWMBR) - in terms of their ability to satisfy onsite non-potable demand, their environmental impacts and their economic cost. As part of the analysis, we developed the Non-potable Environmental and Economic Water Reuse Calculator (NEWR), a publicly available U.S. EPA web application that allows users to generate planning-level estimates of system cost and environmental performance using location and basic building characteristics as inputs. By running NEWR for a range of scenarios, we find that, across the U.S., rainfall and air-conditioner condensate are only able to satisfy a fraction of the non-potable demand typical of large buildings even under favorable climate conditions. Environmental impacts of RWH and ACH systems depend on local climate and were comparable to the ones of MBR systems where annual rainfall exceeds approximately 10 in/yr or annual condensate potential exceeds approximately 3 gal/cfm. MBR systems can meet all non-potable demands but their environmental impacts depend more on the composition of the local energy grid, owing to their greater reliance on electricity inputs. Incorporation of thermal recovery to offset building hot water heating requirements amplifies the influence of the local grid mix on environmental impacts, with mixed results depending on grid composition and whether thermal recovery offsets natural gas or electricity consumption. Additional environmental benefits are realized when NPR systems are implemented in water scarce regions with diverse topography and regions relying on groundwater sources, which increases the benefits of reducing reliance on centralized drinking water services. In terms of cost, WWMBRs were found to have the lowest cost under the largest range of building characteristics and locations, achieving cost parity with local drinking water rates when those rates were more than $7 per 1000 gallons, which occurred in 19% of surveyed cities.

Human Health, Economic and Environmental Assessment of Onsite Non-Potable Water Reuse Systems for a Large, Mixed-Use Urban Building.

Onsite non-potable reuse (NPR) is being increasingly considered as a viable option to address water scarcity and infrastructure challenges, particularly at the building scale. However, there are a range of possible treatment technologies, source water options, and treatment system sizes, each with its unique costs and benefits. While demonstration projects are proving that these systems can be technologically feasible and protective of public health, little guidance exists for identifying systems that balance public health protection with environmental and economic performance. This study uses quantitative microbial risk assessment, life cycle assessment and life cycle cost analysis to characterize the human health, environmental and economic aspects of onsite NPR systems. Treatment trains for both mixed wastewater and source-separated graywater were modeled using a core biological process-an aerobic membrane bioreactor (AeMBR), an anaerobic membrane bioreactor (AnMBR) or recirculating vertical flow wetland (RVFW)-and additional treatment and disinfection unit processes sufficient to meet current health-based NPR guidelines. Results show that the graywater AeMBR system designed to provide 100% of onsite non-potable demand results in the lowest impacts across most environmental and human health metrics considered but costs more than the mixed-wastewater version due to the need for a separate collection system. The use of multiple metrics also allows for identification of weaknesses in systems that lead to burden shifting. For example, although the RVFW process requires less energy than the AeMBR process, the RVFW system is more environmentally impactful and costly when considering the additional unit processes required to protect human health. Similarly, we show that incorporation of thermal recovery units to reduce hot water energy consumption can offset some environmental impacts but result in increases to others, including cumulative energy demand. Results demonstrate the need for additional data on the pathogen treatment performance of NPR systems to inform NPR health guidance.

Environmental and cost benefits of co-digesting food waste at wastewater treatment facilities.

The wastewater industry is undergoing a paradigm shift from focusing solely on treatment to incorporating concepts aimed at mitigating environmental impacts such as energy and nutrient recovery and water reuse. This study uses life cycle assessment and life cycle cost analysis to investigate the effect of expanding anaerobic digestion (AD) capacity and adding combined heat and power on environmental and cost indicators at a mid-sized wastewater treatment facility (WWTF) in Massachusetts, USA. Since 2014, Massachusetts has banned the disposal of organic waste from commercial organizations producing more than one ton of material per week. The WWTF's additional digester capacity allows the co-digestion of municipal solids with a food-based engineered bioslurry due to this ban. Study data were compiled for several AD feedstock quantity and performance scenarios, and compared to a baseline scenario representative of historic plant operations prior to co-digestion. Reductions in environmental impact are demonstrated for six of eight environmental impacts, including global climate change potential and cumulative energy demand. Eutrophication potential increases by 10 percent and 24 percent across assessed scenarios. Water use remains relatively constant across scenarios. Facility energy production increases dramatically with co-digestion, satisfying 100 percent of the WWTF's thermal energy requirement and producing surplus electricity assuming full AD capacity utilization.

Life cycle assessment of a rainwater harvesting system compared with an AC condensate harvesting system.

This study presents a life cycle assessment (LCA) of a rainwater harvesting (RWH) system and an air-conditioning condensate harvesting (ACH) system for non-potable water reuse. U.S. commercial buildings were reviewed to design rooftop RWH and ACH systems for one to multi-story buildings' non-potable water demand. A life cycle inventory was compiled from the U.S. EPA's database. Nine scenarios were analyzed, including baseline RWH system, ACH system, and combinations of the two systems adapted to 4-story and 19-story commercial buildings in San Francisco and a 4-story building in Washington, DC. Normalization of 11 life cycle impact assessment categories showed that RWH systems in 4-story buildings at both locations outperformed ACH systems (45-80% of ACH impacts) except equivalent in Evaporative Water Consumption. However, San Francisco's ACH system in 19-story building outperformed the RWH system (51-83% of RWH impacts) due to the larger volume of ACH collection, except equivalent in Evaporative Water Consumption. For all three buildings, the combined system preformed equivalently to the better-performing option (≤4-8% impact difference compared to the maximum system). Sensitivity analysis of the volume of water supply and building occupancy showed impact-specific results. Local climatic conditions, rainfall, humidity, water collections and demands are important when designing building-scale RWH and ACH systems. LCA models are transferrable to other locations with variable climatic conditions for decision-making when developing and implementing on-site non-potable water systems.

Nutrient Recovery from Municipal Wastewater for Sustainable Food Production Systems: An Alternative to Traditional Fertilizers.

Traditional wastewater management uses end-of-pipe approaches to remove pollutants in wastewater before discharge. Although effective in human health protection for decades, this approach of removal and disposal requires a high investment of energy and materials and overlooks the values of the key nutrients in wastewater such as phosphorus (P). Phosphorus in wastewater comes from the human metabolites of food, resulted from crop uptakes of fertilizer that ultimately derived from phosphate rock (PR). PR, however, could be depleted in this century, which would lead to a global food crisis. To address the question whether nutrient recovery is indeed a more efficient strategy from a system perspective and provides more benefits to society, this research compares fertilizer production from struvite to the traditional commercial fertilizers (e.g., diammonium phosphate, DAP). Emergy defined as the available energy required directly and indirectly through all transformations to make a product, process, or service is the tool used for system analysis in this study. Emergy accounting provides system analysis of total resource use and whole system efficiency. The results show that struvite production uses one order of magnitude less emergy than DAP production to produce one unit of fertilizer, indicating that struvite production is a more efficient process. This research sheds light on alternative nutrient management through nutrient recovery, which may achieve economic and environmental benefits and overall higher system efficiency.

Holistic Analysis of Urban Water Systems in the Greater Cincinnati Region: (2) Resource Use Profiles by Emergy Accounting Approach.

With increasing populations, mounting environmental pressures and aging infrastructure, urban water and wastewater utilities have to make investment decisions limited by both economic and environmental constraints. The challenges facing urban water systems can no longer be sustainably solved by traditional siloed water management approaches. A central premise of contemporary urban water management paradigms is that in order for urban water systems to be more sustainable and economical, an improvement in resource use efficiency at system level must be achieved. This study provides a quantification of the total resource use of a typical urban water system exemplified in Greater Cincinnati region from raw water extraction for drinking water to wastewater treatment and discharge, providing a better understanding of resource expenditure distributions within the system and a necessary benchmark to which future system improvements can be compared. The emergy methodology was used so that the total environmental work required to produce disparate system inputs could be expressed using a common unit. The results were compared to the concurring life cycle assessment (LCA) and life cycle costing (LCC) results of the same system. Emergy results highlight drinking water treatment and drinking water distribution as two resource-intensive stages, with energy for pumping and chemicals for conditioning representing the greatest inputs to the former and energy for pumping and metals for piping representing the greatest inputs to the latter. For wastewater collection and treatment stages, aeration and sludge handling were identified as the highest emergy unit processes, mostly due to energy use. Comparison with LCA results substantiate the environmental concerns associated with energy use in the drinking water treatment and distribution stages but indicate that environmental burdens associated with infrastructure are more dependent upon upstream resource use rather than downstream environmental impact. Results from emergy, LCA and LCC point towards aeration and sludge handling as two unit processes on the wastewater side that are particularly costly and environmentally impactful. Results in total are used to suggest alternative strategies that can alleviate identified environmental burdens and economic costs.

Holistic Analysis of Urban Water Systems in the Greater Cincinnati Region: (1) Life Cycle Assessment and Cost Implications.

Urban water and wastewater utilities are striving to improve their environmental and economic performances due to multiple challenges such as increasingly stringent quality criterion, aging infrastructure, constraining financial burden, growing urban population, climate challenges and dwindling resources. Growing needs of holistic assessments of urban water systems are required to identify systems-level cross-domain solutions. This study evaluated the life cycle environmental and economic impacts of urban water and wastewater systems with two utilities in Greater Cincinnati region as a case study. The scope of this study includes the entire urban water and wastewater systems starting from raw water acquisition for drinking water to wastewater treatment and discharge. The detailed process-based life cycle models were developed based on the datasets provided by local water and wastewater utilities. The life cycle assessment indicated that the operation and maintenance of drinking water distribution was a dominating contributor for energy consumption (43%) and global warming potential (41%). Wastewater discharge from the wastewater treatment plant contributed to more than 80% of the total eutrophication potential. The cost analysis determined that labor and maintenance cost (19%) for wastewater collection, and electricity cost (13%) for drinking water distribution were major contributors. Electricity purchased by the utility was the driver for the majority of impact categories assessed with the exception of eutrophication, blue water use, and metal depletion. Infrastructure requirements had a negligible influence on impact results, contributing less than 3% to most categories, with the exception of metal depletion where it led to 68% of total burdens. Sensitivity analysis showed that the life cycle environmental results were more sensitive to the choice of the electricity mixes and electricity consumption than the rest of input parameters such as chemical dosages, and infrastructure life time. This is one of the first comprehensive studies of the whole urban water system using real case data. It elucidates a bigger picture of energy, resource and cost distributions in a typical urban centralized water system. Inherent to a modern city as large population centers, a significant expenditure has to be invested to provide water services function (moving water, treating water/wastewater) in order to avoid human and environmental health problems. This study provides insights for optimization potentials of overall treatment efficiency and can serve as a benchmark for communities considering adoption of alternative water systems.

Effect of Nutrient Removal and Resource Recovery on Life Cycle Cost and Environmental Impacts of a Small Scale Water Resource Recovery Facility.

To limit effluent impacts on eutrophication in receiving waterbodies, a small community water resource recovery facility (WRRF) upgraded their conventional activated sludge treatment process for biological nutrient removal, and considered enhanced primary settling and anaerobic digestion (AD) with co-digestion of high strength organic waste (HSOW). The community initiated the resource recovery hub concept with the intention of converting an energy-consuming wastewater treatment plant into a facility that generates energy and nutrients and reuses water. We applied life cycle assessment and life cycle cost assessment to evaluate the net impact of the potential conversion. The upgraded WRRF reduced eutrophication impacts by 40 percent compared to the legacy system. Other environmental impacts such as global climate change potential (GCCP) and cumulative energy demand (CED) were strongly affected by AD and composting assumptions. The scenario analysis showed that HSOW co-digestion with energy recovery can lead to reductions in GCCP and CED of 7 and 108 percent, respectively, for the upgraded WRRF (high feedstock-base AD performance scenarios) relative to the legacy system. The cost analysis showed that using the full digester capacity and achieving high digester performance can reduce the life cycle cost of WRRF upgrades by 15 percent over a 30-year period.

The Emergy Perspective of Sustainable Trends in Puerto Rico from 1960 to 2013.

Emergy analysis quantifies the direct and indirect contributions of nature to human systems providing a sustainability assessment framework, which couples economic growth within biophysical constraints. In this study, Puerto Rico's sustainability was assessed with emergy flow dynamics from 1960 to 2013. During this period, the island shifted from an agriculture-based economy to an industrial base of manufacture and services (1960-1970). The emergy analysis indicated an exponential decline in sustainability during this period. From 1975 to 1992, the island became more industrialized and imported more goods and services. Since 1998, although more renewable production such as forest regeneration occurred, the rapid industrialization heavily relied on imported fossil fuels, goods, and services, resulting in a system that has not been self-sufficient, nor sustainable. The latest economic crisis and the most recently passed financial rescue bill represent an opportunity to redirect Puerto Rico towards a sustainable path with policies that decrease the ratio of imported y to exported emergy, and strategies that encourage efficient use of resources and local production based on the utilization of renewable sources within this U.S. territory.

Critical insights for a sustainability framework to address integrated community water services: Technical metrics and approaches.

Planning for sustainable community water systems requires a comprehensive understanding and assessment of the integrated source-drinking-wastewater systems over their life-cycles. Although traditional life cycle assessment and similar tools (e.g. footprints and emergy) have been applied to elements of these water services (i.e. water resources, drinking water, stormwater or wastewater treatment alone), we argue for the importance of developing and combining the system-based tools and metrics in order to holistically evaluate the complete water service system based on the concept of integrated resource management. We analyzed the strengths and weaknesses of key system-based tools and metrics, and discuss future directions to identify more sustainable municipal water services. Such efforts may include the need for novel metrics that address system adaptability to future changes and infrastructure robustness. Caution is also necessary when coupling fundamentally different tools so to avoid misunderstanding and consequently misleading decision-making.

An ecohydrologic model for a shallow groundwater urban environment.

The urban environment is a patchwork of natural and artificial surfaces that results in complex interactions with and impacts to natural hydrologic cycles. Evapotranspiration is a major hydrologic flow that is often altered through urbanization, although the mechanisms of change are sometimes difficult to tease out due to difficulty in effectively simulating soil-plant-atmosphere interactions. This paper introduces a simplified yet realistic model that is a combination of existing surface runoff and ecohydrology models designed to increase the quantitative understanding of complex urban hydrologic processes. Results demonstrate that the model is capable of simulating the long-term variability of major hydrologic fluxes as a function of impervious surface, temperature, water table elevation, canopy interception, soil characteristics, precipitation and complex mechanisms of plant water uptake. These understandings have potential implications for holistic urban water system management.