Semantic verbal fluency in native speakers of Turkish: a systematic review of category use, scoring metrics and normative data in healthy individuals.

INTRODUCTION: Semantic verbal fluency (SVF) is a widely used measure of frontal executive function and access to semantic memory. SVF scoring metrics include the number of unique words generated, perseverations, intrusions, semantic cluster size and switching between clusters, and scores vary depending on the language the test is administered in. In this paper, we review the existing normative data for Turkish, the main metrics used for scoring SVF data in Turkish, and the most frequently used categories. METHOD: We conducted a systematic review of peer-reviewed papers using Medline, EMBASE, PsycInfo, Web of Science, and two Turkish databases, TR-Dizin and Yok-Tez. Included papers contained data on the SVF performance of healthy adult native speakers of Turkish, and reported the categories used. Versions of the SVF that required participants to alternate categories were excluded. We extracted and tabulated demographics, descriptions of groups, metrics used, categories used, and sources of normative data. Studies were assessed for level of detail in reporting findings. RESULTS: 1400 studies were retrieved. After deduplication, abstract, full text screening, and merging of theses with their published versions, 121 studies were included. 114 studies used the semantic category "animal", followed by first names (N = 14, 12%). All studies reported word count. More complex measures were rare (perseverations: N = 12, 10%, clustering and switching: N = 5, 4%). Four of seven normative studies reported only word count, two also measured perseverations, and one reported category violations and perseverations. Two normative studies were published in English. CONCLUSIONS: There is a lack of normative Turkish SVF data with more complex metrics, such as clustering and switching, and a lack of normative data published in English. Given the size of the Turkish diaspora, normative SVF data should include monolingual and bilingual speakers. Limitations include a restriction to key English and Turkish databases.

The Associations Between Camouflaging, Autistic Traits, and Mental Health in Nonautistic Adults.

Background: Camouflaging is frequently reported in autistic people and entails the disguising of autistic traits in social situations. Camouflaging is associated with poor mental health in autistic people. This study examined the manifestation of camouflaging in a nonautistic sample, examining the relationship between autistic traits, self-reported camouflaging, gender, and mental health. Method: In total 110 nonautistic adults completed standardized self-report questionnaires that measured autistic traits, mental health symptoms, and camouflaging behaviors. Hierarchical multiple linear regression models were used to analyze data and examine the unique contributions of autistic traits and camouflaging to mental health. Results: Self-reported autistic traits were associated with increased symptoms of poor mental health. However, autistic traits were not associated with mental health symptoms when controlling for self-reported camouflaging, and self-reported camouflaging predicted increased mental health symptoms over and above the effects of autistic traits. Women had poorer mental health than men in our sample, and in women there was a stronger relationship between camouflaging and mental health than in men. Conclusions: Camouflaging may contribute to poor mental health outcomes in the general population, just as it does for autistic people, to the extent that camouflaging more clearly relates to mental health profile than self-reported autism traits. This suggests camouflaging is an important construct for understanding mental health in general, and for exploring the complex relationship between autism and autistic traits.

Why was this study done?: Some autistic individuals report trying to hide their autistic traits to blend in with others, referring to this as "camouflaging" or "masking." Many autistic people who camouflage describe it as being a very difficult and distressing process, which can be harmful to their mental health. In nonautistic people, a higher level of autistic traits is related to poor mental health. Nonautistic people have also reported camouflaging autistic traits, but we know less about whether this might also impact their mental health. What was the purpose of this study?: We did this study to find out more about the relationship between mental health and camouflaging of autistic traits in nonautistic people. What did the researchers do?: We asked 110 nonautistic adults to complete a series of questionnaires. These questionnaires asked them about their autistic traits, their camouflaging behaviors, and their mental health. We then used statistical tests to look at the relationships between autistic traits, camouflaging, gender, and mental health. What were the results of the study?: We found that people who camouflaged more had poorer mental health, including symptoms of anxiety, depression, and stress. People with more autistic traits also had poorer mental health. When we looked at both of these relationships at the same time, only camouflaging was related to poor mental health, and not autistic traits. When we also looked at gender, we found that women in our study had poorer mental health than men, and the relationship between camouflaging and mental health was stronger for women. What do these findings add to what was already known?: These findings help us understand the relationship between autistic traits and mental health by demonstrating that it may be the camouflaging of autistic traits that is related to poorer mental health. These findings also help us better understand camouflaging by showing that the negative consequences of camouflaging for mental health may apply to both autistic and nonautistic people. What are the potential weaknesses in the study?: Our study only looked at the relationship between autistic traits, camouflaging, gender, and mental health. It is possible that there are other factors our study did not investigate, such as ethnicity or sexual identity, which also play an important role. Our study also cannot tell us whether or not camouflaging is the cause of poor mental health, only that there is a relationship between camouflaging and mental health. How will these findings help autistic adults now or in the future?: By studying camouflaging in different groups and seeing what is shared and what is unique between autistic and nonautistic people, we can develop a better understanding of camouflaging. Knowledge of the mental health consequences of camouflaging can help mental health services to reduce the negative impact of camouflaging for autistic and nonautistic people. Our findings also show an important similarity between autistic and nonautistic people, showing that both groups of people may camouflage, and this negatively impacts mental health. Acknowledgment of this shared experience may help to reduce the discrimination and stigma that autistic people face.

Prosocial speech acts: Links to pragmatics and aging.

This study investigated how adults over the lifespan flexibly adapt their use of prosocial speech acts when conveying bad news to communicative partners. Experiment 1a (N = 100 Scottish adults aged 18-72 years) assessed whether participants' use of prosocial speech acts varied according to audience design considerations (i.e., whether or not the recipient of the news was directly affected). Experiment 1b (N = 100 Scottish adults aged 19-70 years) assessed whether participants adjusted for whether the bad news was more or less severe (an index of general knowledge). Younger adults displayed more flexible adaptation to the recipient manipulation, while no age differences were found for severity. These findings are consistent with prior work showing age-related decline in audience design but not in the use of general knowledge during language production. Experiment 2 further probed younger adults (N = 40, Scottish, aged 18-37 years) and older adults' (N = 40, Scottish, aged 70-89 years) prosocial linguistic behavior by investigating whether health (vs. nonhealth-related) matters would affect responses. While older adults used prosocial speech acts to a greater extent than younger adults, they did not distinguish between conditions. Our results suggest that prosocial linguistic behavior is likely influenced by a combination of differences in audience design and communicative styles at different ages. Collectively, these findings highlight the importance of situating prosocial speech acts within the pragmatics and aging literature, allowing us to uncover the factors modulating prosocial linguistic behavior at different developmental stages. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

The influence of interruptions and planning on serial everyday multitasking in older adults.

Cognitive aging research has studied the influence of healthy aging on the ability to multitask. Yet, little is known about the factors that might improve or impair serial multitasking performance in older adults. Three experiments involving younger and older adults assessed the impact of interruptions and planning on a prop-based test of multitasking. In Experiment 1, 26 younger adults and 25 older adults' multitasking abilities were assessed; older adults performed significantly more poorly than younger adults. In Experiment 2, 19 younger and 22 older adults were randomly allocated to a group who experienced a one minute unexpected interruption while multitasking or a group with no interruption. The results showed that, when there was an interruption, the age difference disappeared. In Experiment 3, 32 younger and 30 older adults were randomly allocated to a group who were given 3 minutes to write an outline describing how they intended to approach the multitasking task, and another group who were given 3 minutes to label pictures of everyday objects prior to multitasking. Again, when participants were encouraged to plan, no age difference was found. These results highlight the advantage that interruptions and planning might have on serial everyday multitasking performance in older adults.

The relationship between social cognitive processes and behavior changes in people with amnestic mild cognitive impairment or dementia using the Edinburgh Social Cognition Test (ESCoT).

OBJECTIVE: People with amnestic mild cognitive impairment (aMCI) or dementia often exhibit a decline in their social abilities, but few tests of social cognition exist that are suitable for clinical use. Moreover, the relationship between changes in behavior and impairments in social cognition is poorly understood. We examined the utility of the Edinburgh Social Cognition Test (ESCoT) in people with aMCI/dementia and explored associations between social cognition performance and behavior changes. METHOD: We administered the ESCoT and two established social cognition tests (the Reading the Mind in the Eyes and the Social Norms Questionnaire) to 28 people with aMCI or dementia and 28 age and sex matched cognitively healthy controls. Behavior change was measured using a semistructured interview which assesses behavioral abnormalities found in frontotemporal dementia. RESULTS: People with aMCI/dementia were impaired on the ESCoT affective theory of mind, ESCoT total score and the Reading the Mind in the Eyes. Behavior changes in the domains of apathy, loss of sympathy/empathy, perseveration, and psychotic symptoms were associated with poorer affective theory of mind scores. Disinhibition, loss of sympathy/empathy and hyperorality or altered food preferences were associated with cognitive theory of mind. All behaviors were significantly associated with poorer performance on ESCoT total score, but were not associated with performance on the Reading the Mind in the Eyes or the Social Norms Questionnaire. CONCLUSIONS: The ESCoT was sensitive to social cognition impairments in people with aMCI/dementia and it relates to behavior change in aMCI/dementia unlike established tests. Different subtests of the ESCoT were related to different behavior changes. These findings suggest that the ESCoT may be a clinically valuable tool when examining social cognition. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Development, reliability, validity, and acceptability of the remote administration of the Edinburgh Cognitive and Behavioural ALS Screen (ECAS).

BACKGROUND: ALS clinical care and research has changed dramatically since the COVID-19 pandemic, accelerating the need for cognitive assessments to be adapted for remote use. OBJECTIVES: To develop the remote administration method of the Edinburgh Cognitive and Behavioural ALS Screen (ECAS), and determine its reliability and validity. Methods: The validation process consisted of: (1) Two versions of the ECAS (A and B) were administered, one in-person and one remotely via video call in a randomized order to 27 people without ALS; (2) The ECAS was administered remotely to 24 pwALS, with a second rater independently scoring performance; and (3) Acceptability was assessed by gathering feedback from 17 pwALS and 19 clinicians and researchers about their experience of using the ECAS remotely. RESULTS: In the group without ALS, the remote and in-person ECAS total scores were found to be equivalent, and a Bland-Altman plot showed good agreement between the two administration methods. In pwALS, there was excellent agreement between two raters (ICC = 0.99). Positive feedback was gained from pwALS, researchers and clinicians with regards to ease of process, convenience, time, and the environment. CONCLUSIONS: These findings provide evidence of the reliability and validity of the remote administration of the ECAS for pwALS, with clinicians, researchers and pwALS viewing it as a good alternative to face-to-face administration.

Luria's fist-edge-palm test: A small change makes a big difference.

Slight modifications in the instructions or administration of neuropsychological tests could result in noticeable differences in performance. A good example is offered by a test devised by Luria to assess executive functioning in motor planning, the three-step fist-edge-palm (FEP) test, which is still frequently employed in clinical settings and features in several neuropsychological test batteries such as the Frontal Assessment Battery (FAB). While Luria described the orientation of the fist as horizontal to the testing desk (hFEP), recent versions of the task indicate the fist should be vertical to the testing desk (vFEP). The current study examined whether administering the hFEP or the vFEP tests results in different performance in healthy people, and whether one version is better than the other at detecting impairments in a patient population. The hFEP proved more challenging for healthy adults than the vFEP, and people with brain damage committed more errors on the hFEP than the vFEP. Both versions correlated with executive measures but also with several other cognitive variables, indicating that the test is not a specific marker of executive functions. Although performance on the FEP is sensitive to articulatory suppression, faster pace, and the number of sequences performed, none of these conditions fully account for the differences between the hFEP and vFEP. The additional demand of the hFEP appears to be due to the less natural (i.e., automatic) orientation of the horizontal fist. In conclusion, a small change in the administration of the test, eluding Luria's instructions, grossly modified its sensitivity. Clinicians and researchers should be wary of modifying instructions or testing procedures without considering the possible consequences of such modifications.

Collaborative learning of new information in older age: a systematic review.

Ageing is accompanied by a multitude of changes in cognitive abilities, which in turn affect learning. Learning collaboratively may benefit older adults by negating some of these age-related changes. However, studies on collaborative learning in older age differ in their methodology and findings. This systematic review provides an overview of the current research on collaborative learning in older age, exploring what factors influence collaborative learning in this age group. The titles and abstracts of imported 6629 works were screened, as well as four works added manually, which resulted in 29 studies. These studies were conducted across five countries (Canada, United States, United Kingdom, Switzerland and Belgium) between 1993 and 2023. Most studies were quantitative with a non-randomized (n = 16) design. Of the 29 studies, almost all studied collaboration in pairs (n = 28). The results suggest that the benefits of collaborating in older age may depend on the type of learning material, that familiarity between partners does not affect learning, and that age differences appear to decrease or disappear when older adults are provided with adequate time or trials. In addition, this systematic review identifies several gaps in the literature that future research should investigate further. This study was preregistered prior to its commencement on 21 January 2022. The accepted Stage 1 manuscript, unchanged from the point of in-principle acceptance, may be viewed at https://osf.io/tj4w7/. The data and materials of this study can be found at https://osf.io/8xvqf/.

Cybersickness, Cognition, & Motor Skills: The Effects of Music, Gender, and Gaming Experience.

Recent research has attempted to identify methods to mitigate cybersickness and examine its aftereffects. In this direction, this paper examines the effects of cybersickness on cognitive, motor, and reading performance in VR. Also, this paper evaluates the mitigating effects of music on cybersickness, as well as the role of gender, and the computing, VR, and gaming experience of the user. This paper reports two studies. In the 1st study, 92 participants selected the music tracks considered most calming (low valence) or joyful (high valence) to be used in the 2nd study. In the 2nd study, 39 participants performed an assessment four times, once before the rides (baseline), and then once after each ride (3 rides). In each ride either Calming, or Joyful, or No Music was played. During each ride, linear and angular accelerations took place to induce cybersickness in the participants. In each assessment, while immersed in VR, the participants evaluated their cybersickness symptomatology and performed a verbal working memory task, a visuospatial working memory task, and a psychomotor task. While responding to the cybersickness questionnaire (3D UI), eye-tracking was conducted to measure reading time and pupillometry. The results showed that Joyful and Calming music substantially decreased the intensity of nausea-related symptoms. However, only Joyful music significantly decreased the overall cybersickness intensity. Importantly, cybersickness was found to decrease verbal working memory performance and pupil size. Also, it significantly decelerated psychomotor (reaction time) and reading abilities. Higher gaming experience was associated with lower cybersickness. When controlling for gaming experience, there were no significant differences between female and male participants in terms of cybersickness. The outcomes indicated the efficiency of music in mitigating cybersickness, the important role of gaming experience in cybersickness, and the significant effects of cybersickness on pupil size, cognition, psychomotor skills, and reading ability.

An ecologically valid examination of event-based and time-based prospective memory using immersive virtual reality: The influence of attention, memory, and executive function processes on real-world prospective memory.

Studies on prospective memory (PM) predominantly assess either event- or time-based PM by implementing non-ecological laboratory-based tasks. The results deriving from these paradigms have provided findings that are discrepant with ecologically valid research paradigms that converge on the complexity and cognitive demands of everyday tasks. The Virtual Reality Everyday Assessment Lab (VR-EAL), an immersive virtual reality (VR) neuropsychological battery with enhanced ecological validity, was implemented to assess everyday event- and time-based PM, as well as the influence of other cognitive functions on everyday PM functioning. The results demonstrated the role of delayed recognition, planning, and visuospatial attention on everyday PM. Delayed recognition and planning ability were found to be central in event- and time-based PM respectively. In order of importance, delayed recognition, visuospatial attention speed, and planning ability were found to be involved in event-based PM functioning. Comparably, planning, visuospatial attention accuracy, delayed recognition, and multitasking/task-shifting ability were found to be involved in time-based PM functioning. These findings further suggest the importance of ecological validity in the study of PM, which may be achieved using immersive VR paradigms.

Cognitive reserve and emotion recognition in the context of normal aging.

The Cognitive Reserve (CR) hypothesis accounts for individual differences in vulnerability to age- or pathological-related brain changes. It suggests lifetime influences (e.g., education) increase the effectiveness of cognitive processing in later life. While evidence suggests CR proxies predict cognitive performance in older age, it is less clear whether CR proxies attenuate age-related decline on social cognitive tasks. This study investigated the effect of CR proxies on unimodal and cross-modal emotion identification. Sixty-six older adults aged 60-78 years were assessed on CR proxies (Cognitive Reserve Index Questionnaire, NART), unimodal(faces only, voices only), and cross-modal (faces and voices combined) emotion recognition and executive function (Stroop Test). No CR proxy predicted performance on emotion recognition. However, NART IQ predicted performance on the Stroop test; higher NART IQ was associated with better performance. The current study suggests CR proxies do not predict performance on social cognition tests but do predict performance on cognitive tasks.

Italian adaptation of the Edinburgh Social Cognition Test (ESCoT): A new tool for the assessment of theory of mind and social norm understanding.

The relevance of social cognition assessment has been formally described in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-5. However, social cognition tools evaluating different socio-cognitive components for Italian-speaking populations are lacking. The Edinburgh Social Cognition Test (ESCoT) is a new social cognition measure that uses animations of everyday social interactions to assess (i) cognitive theory of mind, (ii) affective theory of mind, (iii) interpersonal social norm understanding, and (iv) intrapersonal social norm understanding. Previous studies have shown that the ESCoT is a sensitive measure of social cognition in healthy and clinical populations in the United Kingdom. This work aimed to adapt and validate the ESCoT in an Italian population of healthy adults. A translation-back-translation procedure was followed to create and refine the Italian version. Then, 94 healthy adults (47 females, mean age 35 ± 15.9) completed the ESCoT, a battery of conventional social cognition tests (Yoni; Reading the Mind in the Eyes Strange Stories, and Social Norm Questionnaire, SNQ) and measures of intelligence and executive functions. Reliability, convergent validity, and predictors of performance on the ESCoT were examined. Results demonstrated good reliability of the ESCoT and an association between the ESCoT scores and some traditional social cognition tests (Yoni cognitive subscale, SNQ). Hierarchical regression results showed that the ESCoT total score was associated with age. Also, the ESCoT subscore (intrapersonal social norm understanding) was associated with education. These findings support the ESCoT as a valid tool testing social norm understanding, a reliable measure of social cognition for an adult Italian population, and provides further evidence that the ESCoT is sensitive to age- and education-related changes in social cognition, and it is a task not affected by general cognitive functioning.

An Investigation of the Validity of the Edinburgh Social Cognition Test (ESCoT) in Acquired Brain Injury (ABI).

OBJECTIVES: Social cognition is frequently impaired following an acquired brain injury (ABI) but often overlooked in clinical assessments. There are few validated and appropriate measures of social cognitive abilities for ABI patients. The current study examined the validity of the Edinburgh Social Cognition Test (ESCoT, Baksh et al., ) in measuring social cognition following an ABI. METHODS: Forty-one patients with ABI were recruited from a rehabilitation service and completed measures of general ability, executive functions and social cognition (Faux Pas; FP, Reading the Mind in the Eyes; RME, Social Norms Questionnaire; SNQ and the ESCoT). Forty-one controls matched on age, sex and years of education also performed the RME, SNQ and ESCoT. RESULTS: A diagnosis of ABI was significantly associated with poorer performance on all ESCoT measures and RME while adjusting for age, sex and years of education. In ABI patients, the ESCoT showed good internal consistency with its subcomponents and performance correlated with the other measures of social cognition demonstrating convergent validity. Better Trail Making Test performance predicted better ESCoT total, RME and SNQ scores. Higher TOPF IQ was associated with higher RME scores, while higher WAIS-IV working memory predicted better FP performance. CONCLUSIONS: The ESCoT is a brief, valid and internally consistent assessment tool able to detect social cognition deficits in neurological patients. Given the prevalence of social cognition deficits in ABI and the marked impact these can have on an individual's recovery, this assessment can be a helpful addition to a comprehensive neuropsychological assessment.

What determines cognitive estimation ability? Changing contributions of semantic and executive domains as a function of age.

The Cognitive Estimation Test (CET) is commonly used in neuropsychological assessment. It is typically assumed to load on executive functions, although research has shown that CET performance also depends on access to semantic knowledge. It is unknown whether these contributions vary with age. It is important to examine this question as these abilities have divergent life course trajectories: executive functions tend to decline as people age but semantic knowledge continues to accrue. In addition, previous research has not examined potential contributions to CET performance from semantic control abilities, that is cognitive control processes involved specifically in the retrieval and use of semantic information. To address these questions, we investigated cognitive predictors of CET performance in healthy young and older adults. We found that better executive function was associated with more accurate estimation in both age groups. However, the effect of semantic knowledge on CET performance was significantly larger in older people, having no predictive power in the younger group. The ability to detect weak semantic associations, which is thought to index controlled search and retrieval of semantic information, also had divergent effects on CET performance in the two age groups. Our results provide empirical support for the idea that older people are more reliant on semantic knowledge when estimating quantities, which may explain why age-related decline in CET scores is not typically found. We conclude that deficits on the CET may be indicative either of semantic or executive impairments, particularly in older age groups.

Learning with friends and strangers: partner familiarity does not improve collaborative learning performance in younger and older adults.

Collaborative learning with a familiar partner can reduce age-related differences in learning and memory compared to learning alone. This study compares younger and older adults' learning with familiar and unfamiliar partners to determine whether familiarity is beneficial for collaborative learning. Twenty-four younger adults aged 18-28 years and 24 older adults aged 60-80 years participated in familiar and unfamiliar pairs. Participants were asked to arrange abstract tangram shapes in a specific order on a grid over multiple trials; the directors' tangram cards were arranged in a specific order on the grid and this order was communicated to the matcher. Older adults initially took longer to complete the task, using more words to correctly arrange the tangrams. Over multiple trials, a learning effect was observed in both groups, although older adults did not perform with similar efficiency to younger adults. Familiarity had no effect on performance. These findings suggest that the familiarity of a partner does not affect learning outcomes in younger or older adults when learning in a social context. Collaborative learning may be beneficial for older adults, even if they do not know their learning partner, which may have implications for adult education and lifelong learning.

The Impact of Bilingualism on Everyday Executive Functions of English-Arabic Autistic Children: Through a Parent-Teacher Lens.

There is evidence that autistic children may have reduced executive function skills, contributing to day-to-day difficulties, but much remains unknown regarding the influence of bilingualism. We investigated its influence on sustained attention, interference control, flexible switching and working memory, in Arabic-English autistic (n = 27) and typically developing peers (n = 53) children, aged 5 to 12 years old. Parents and teachers completed rating measures assessing children's daily EF abilities. Results showed generalized positive effects for bilingual autistic children relative to their monolingual peers across all EF domains, but using parent ratings only. The findings indicate that bilingualism does not negatively impact the executive function skills of autistic children, and that it might mitigate difficulties faced on a day-to-day basis.

An ecologically valid examination of event-based and time-based prospective memory using immersive virtual reality: the effects of delay and task type on everyday prospective memory.

Recent research has focused on assessing either event- or time-based prospective memory (PM) using laboratory tasks. Yet, the findings pertaining to PM performance on laboratory tasks are often inconsistent with the findings on corresponding naturalistic experiments. Ecologically valid neuropsychological tasks resemble the complexity and cognitive demands of everyday tasks, offer an adequate level of experimental control, and allow a generalisation of the findings to everyday performance. The Virtual Reality Everyday Assessment Lab (VR-EAL), an immersive virtual reality neuropsychological battery with enhanced ecological validity, was implemented to comprehensively assess everyday PM (i.e., focal and non-focal event-based, and time-based). The effects of the length of delay between encoding and initiating the PM intention and the type of PM task on everyday PM performance were examined. The results revealed that everyday PM performance was affected by the length of delay rather than the type of PM task. The effect of the length of delay differentially affected performance on the focal, non-focal, and time-based tasks and was proportional to the PM cue focality (i.e., semantic relationship with the intended action). This study also highlighted methodological considerations such as the differentiation between functioning and ability, distinction of cue attributes, and the necessity of ecological validity.

Social cognition in adults with autism spectrum disorders: Validation of the Edinburgh Social Cognition Test (ESCoT).

OBJECTIVE: Many existing tests of social cognition are not appropriate for clinical use, due to their length, complexity or uncertainty in what they are assessing. The Edinburgh Social Cognition Test (ESCoT) is a new test of social cognition that assesses affective and cognitive Theory of Mind as well as inter- and intrapersonal understanding of social norms using animated interactions. METHOD: To support the development of the ESCoT as a clinical tool, we derived cut-off scores from a neurotypical population (n = 236) and sought to validate the ESCoT in a sample of Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD; n = 19) adults and neurotypical controls (NC; n = 38) matched on age and education. The ESCoT was administered alongside established tests and questionnaire measures of ASD, empathy, systemizing traits and intelligence. RESULTS: Performance on the subtests of the ESCoT and ESCoT total scores correlated with performance on traditional tests, demonstrating convergent validity. ASD adults performed poorer on all measures of social cognition. Unlike the ESCoT, performance on the established tests was predicted by verbal comprehension abilities. Using a ROC curve analysis, we showed that the ESCoT was more effective than existing tests at differentiating ASD adults from NC. Furthermore, a total of 42.11% of ASD adults were impaired on the ESCoT compared to 0% of NC adults. CONCLUSIONS: Overall these results demonstrate that the ESCoT is a useful test for clinical assessment and can aid in the detection of potential difficulties in ToM and social norm understanding.

The Impact of Bilingualism on the Executive Functions of Autistic Children: A Study of English-Arabic Children.

There is evidence to suggest that certain executive functions are impaired in autistic children, contributing to many daily challenges. Regular use of two languages has the potential to positively influence executive functions, though evidence is mixed. Little is known about the impact of bilingualism on the executive functions of autistic children, with only a handful of studies published worldwide to date. This study investigated the impact of bilingualism on sustained attention, interference control, flexible switching and working memory, in Arabic-English autistic children (n = 27) and their typically developing peers (n = 66), aged 5-12 years old. Groups were matched on age, nonverbal IQ and socioeconomic status, and completed a battery of computerized tests. Results showed an advantage for bilingual autistic children relative to their monolingual peers in sustained attention, and equivalent performance between bilingual and monolingual autistic children on all other executive functions. There were no generalized positive effects of bilingualism, and typically-developing children performed better than autistic children on all measures. The findings indicate that bilingualism does not negatively impact the executive function skills of autistic children, and that it might mitigate difficulties in sustained attention. LAY SUMMARY: Contrary to widespread belief, but in line with previous research, this study showed that speaking two languages did not harm thinking skills in autistic children. The thinking skills evaluated in this study included the ability to focus over a period of time, the ability to resist distractions, the ability to move back and forth between tasks, and the ability to use short-term memory. In fact, speaking two languages might help reduce difficulties that autistic children might face when focusing over a period of time.

Validation of the Virtual Reality Everyday Assessment Lab (VR-EAL): An Immersive Virtual Reality Neuropsychological Battery with Enhanced Ecological Validity.

OBJECTIVE: The assessment of cognitive functions such as prospective memory, episodic memory, attention, and executive functions benefits from an ecologically valid approach to better understand how performance outcomes generalize to everyday life. Immersive virtual reality (VR) is considered capable of simulating real-life situations to enhance ecological validity. The present study attempted to validate the Virtual Reality Everyday Assessment Lab (VR-EAL), an immersive VR neuropsychological battery, against an extensive paper-and-pencil neuropsychological battery. METHODS: Forty-one participants (21 females) were recruited: 18 gamers and 23 non-gamers who attended both an immersive VR and a paper-and-pencil testing session. Bayesian Pearson's correlation analyses were conducted to assess construct and convergent validity of the VR-EAL. Bayesian t-tests were performed to compare VR and paper-and-pencil testing in terms of administration time, similarity to real-life tasks (i.e., ecological validity), and pleasantness. RESULTS: VR-EAL scores were significantly correlated with their equivalent scores on the paper-and-pencil tests. The participants' reports indicated that the VR-EAL tasks were significantly more ecologically valid and pleasant than the paper-and-pencil neuropsychological battery. The VR-EAL battery also had a shorter administration time. CONCLUSION: The VR-EAL appears as an effective neuropsychological tool for the assessment of everyday cognitive functions, which has enhanced ecological validity, a highly pleasant testing experience, and does not induce cybersickness.