Effects of weather and social factors on hormone levels in the European badger (Meles meles).

Animals in the wild continually experience changes in environmental and social conditions, which they respond to with behavioural, physiological and morphological adaptations related to individual phenotypic quality. During unfavourable environmental conditions, reproduction can be traded-off against self-maintenance, mediated through changes in reproductive hormone levels. Using the European badger (Meles meles) as a model species, we examine how testosterone in males and oestrogens in females respond to marked deviations in weather from the long-term mean (rainfall and temperature, where badger earthworm food supply is weather dependent), and to social factors (number of adult males and females per social group and total adults in the population), in relation to age, weight and head-body length. Across seasons, testosterone levels correlated postively with body weight and rainfall variability, whereas oestrone correlated positively with population density, but negatively with temperature variability. Restricting analyses to the mating season (spring), heavier males had higher testosterone levels and longer females had higher oestradiol levels. Spring oestrone levels were lower when temperatures were above normal. That we see these effects for this generally adaptive species with a broad bioclimatic niche serves to highlight that climatic effects (especially with the threat of anthropogenic climate change) on reproductive physiology warrant careful attention in a conservation context.

Towards equitable conservation: Social capital, fear and livestock loss shape perceived benefit from a protected area.

Providing sufficient benefits to local people can be an important component of effective and equitable conservation, especially where local communities face substantial opportunity costs or disbenefits from conservation. However, the distribution of benefits to local people is often inadequate or inequitable. In this study we investigated the heterogeneity in the extent to which people living near Hwange National Park (HNP), Zimbabwe, perceive benefit from the presence of the park. Specifically, we examined the relationships between a diverse set of candidate predictor variables and perceived benefit from HNP. Our candidate predictor variables broadly relate to personal assets, social capital, value orientation, fear of lions, and belief and participation in human-wildlife conflict mitigation schemes. One third of respondents reported that their household experienced at least some benefits from HNP. Of all respondents, 6% perceived their household to benefit strongly from HNP and 2% very strongly. Livestock loss to wildlife was the most important factor for predicting perceived benefit, with those suffering more loss less likely to perceive benefit. Multiple demographic factors predicted perceived benefit with, for instance, older people and those with less education perceiving less benefit. Employment in conservation-related work positively affected perceived benefit, whereas fear of lions had a negative impact. Social capital appeared to have a positive influence on perceived benefit from HNP. The relationship between social capital and perceived benefit was positive and plateauing, which suggests that social capital is especially impactful on the benefit perceived by individuals reporting the least social capital. We also found a positive association between belief in compensation schemes and perceived benefit from HNP. We posit hypotheses for this association but are unable to determine the underlying drivers of this relationship. Finally, participation in the community guardians programme, a human-lion conflict mitigation programme, was positively related to perceived benefit from HNP. Thus, our findings emphasise the value of considering a diverse array of factors when investigating park-people relationships and yield insights for improving the equitability of conservation in and around HNP and similar systems.

Dynamic interactions between apex predators reveal contrasting seasonal attraction patterns.

Apex predators play important roles in ecosystem functioning and, where they coexist, intraguild interactions can have profound effects on trophic relationships. Interactions between predators range from intraguild predation and competition to facilitation through scavenging opportunities. Despite the increased availability of fine-scale GPS data, the determinants and outcomes of encounters between apex predators remain understudied. We used simultaneous GPS data from collared spotted hyaenas (Crocuta crocuta) and African lions (Panthera leo) in Hwange National Park, Zimbabwe, to determine the environmental conditions of the encounters between the two species, which species provoked the encounter, and which species dominated the encounter. Our results show that encounters between hyaenas and lions are mostly resource-related (over a carcass or around waterholes). In the wet season, encounters mainly occur at a carcass, with lions being dominant over its access. In the dry season, encounters mainly occur in the absence of a carcass and near waterholes. Movements of hyaenas and lions before, during, and after these dry-season encounters suggest two interference scenarios: a passive interference scenario whereby both predators would be attracted to waterholes but lions would leave a waterhole used by hyaenas because of prey disturbance, and an active interference scenario whereby hyaenas would actively chase lions from waterhole areas, which are prime hunting grounds. This study highlights the seasonal dynamics of predator interactions and illustrates how the relative importance of negative interactions (interference competition during the dry season) and positive interactions (scavenging opportunities during the wet season) shifts over the course of the year.

Extrinsic factors affecting cub development contribute to sexual size dimorphism in the European badger (Meles meles).

Sexual size dimorphism (SSD) is common among mammals, with males typically being larger than females, as a product of sex-specific differences in growth rate and growth duration. The Musteloidea, however, exhibit a hypo-allometric reduction in SSD with increasing body size (contrary to Rensch's rule). A variety of extrinsic factors can affect juvenile growth rates and end body size, where one sex may demonstrate greater vulnerability than the other towards a specific factor, moderating patterns and degrees of SSD. Here, we analyse how male and female European badgers (Meles meles) differ in their somatic growth patterns. We compare the sex-specific growth curves across a range of somatic parameters and investigate what extrinsic (social and environmental) factors affect cub growth rates during the first 2 years of life leading to their sexual-dimorphic adult sizes. We found that average male final size of all measurements was significantly larger than those of females. Although male and female weanling cubs had similar body sizes, growth curves diverged significantly from ca. 11 months onwards due to continuous rapid growth of males versus slowing female growth. Consequently, females always concluded growth earlier than did males. In both sexes, extremities ceased to grow at an earlier age than did body length and zygomatic arch width. All badger cubs were impacted by their social environment as well as by weather conditions; however, male cubs were more sensitive to social factors, remaining smaller in social groups with more adult males present, whereas female final size was predominantly affected by weather and associated food availability. We discuss how extrinsic parameters can moderate patterns of SSD in the context of the differential equilibrium model.

Effects of publication bias on conservation planning.

Conservation planners need reliable information on spatial patterns of biodiversity. However, existing data sets are skewed because some ecosystems, taxa, and locations are underrepresented. We determined how many articles have been published in recent decades on the biodiversity of different countries and their constituent provinces. We searched the Web of Science catalogues Science Citation Index (SCI) and Social Science Citation Index (SSCI) for biodiversity-related articles published from 1993 to 2016 that included country and province names. We combined data on research publication frequency with other provincial-scale factors hypothesized to affect the likelihood of research activity (i.e., economic development, human presence, infrastructure, and remoteness). Areas that appeared understudied relative to the biodiversity expected based on site climate likely have been inaccessible to researchers for reasons, notably armed conflict. Geographic publication bias is of most concern in the most remote areas of sub-Saharan Africa and South America. Our provincial-scale model may help compensate for publication biases in conservation planning by revealing the spatial extent of research needs and the low cost of redoing this analysis annually.

Efectos del Sesgo de Publicación sobre la Planeación de la Conservación Resumen Los planeadores de la conservación necesitan información confiable sobre los patrones espaciales de la biodiversidad. Sin embargo, los conjuntos de datos existentes están distorsionados porque algunos ecosistemas, taxones y localidades están subrepresentados. Determinamos cuántos artículos sobre la biodiversidad de diferentes países y sus provincias constituyentes han sido publicados en décadas recientes. Buscamos artículos relacionados con la biodiversidad publicados entre 1993 y 2016 que incluyeran el nombre de países y provincias en los catálogos SCI y SSCI de la Web of Science. Combinamos los datos de frecuencia de publicación de investigaciones con otros factores de escala provincial que creemos afectarían la probabilidad de la actividad de investigación (es decir, desarrollo económico, presencia humana, infraestructura y lejanía). Las áreas que aparentaron estar poco estudiadas en relación con la biodiversidad esperada basada en el clima del sitio probablemente han estado inaccesibles para los investigadores por diferentes razones, notablemente los conflictos armados. El sesgo geográfico en las publicaciones es un tema de importancia para las áreas más remotas del África subsahariana y América del Sur. Nuestro modelo de escala provincial puede ayudar a compensar los sesgos de publicación en la planeación de la conservación al revelar la extensión espacial de las necesidades de investigación y los bajos costos de repetir este análisis cada año.

Rensching cats and dogs: feeding ecology and fecundity trends explain variation in the allometry of sexual size dimorphism.

The tendency for sexual size dimorphism (SSD) to increase with body mass in taxa where males are larger, and to decrease when females are larger, is known as Rensch's rule. In mammals, where the trend occurs, it is believed to be the result of a competitive advantage for larger males, while female mass is constrained by the energetics of reproduction. Here, we examine the allometry of SSD within the Felidae and Canidae, demonstrating distinctly different patterns: in felids, there is positive allometric scaling, while there is no trend in canids. We hypothesize that feeding ecology, via its effect on female spacing patterns, is responsible for the difference; larger male mass may be advantageous only where females are dispersed such that males can defend access to them. This is supported by the observation that felids are predominately solitary, and all are obligate carnivores. Similarly, carnivorous canids are more sexually dimorphic than insectivores and omnivores, but carnivory does not contribute to a Rensch effect as dietary variation occurs across the mass spectrum. The observed inter-familial differences are also consistent with reduced constraints on female mass in the canids, where litter size increases with body mass, versus no observable allometry in the felids.

An interdisciplinary review of current and future approaches to improving human-predator relations.

In a world of shrinking habitats and increasing competition for natural resources, potentially dangerous predators bring the challenges of coexisting with wildlife sharply into focus. Through interdisciplinary collaboration among authors trained in the humanities, social sciences, and natural sciences, we reviewed current approaches to mitigating adverse human-predator encounters and devised a vision for future approaches to understanding and mitigating such encounters. Limitations to current approaches to mitigation include too much focus on negative impacts; oversimplified equating of levels of damage with levels of conflict; and unsuccessful technical fixes resulting from failure to engage locals, address hidden costs, or understand cultural (nonscientific) explanations of the causality of attacks. An emerging interdisciplinary literature suggests that to better frame and successfully mitigate negative human-predator relations conservation professionals need to consider dispensing with conflict as the dominant framework for thinking about human-predator encounters; work out what conflicts are really about (they may be human-human conflicts); unravel the historical contexts of particular conflicts; and explore different cultural ways of thinking about animals. The idea of cosmopolitan natures may help conservation professionals think more clearly about human-predator relations in both local and global context. These new perspectives for future research practice include a recommendation for focused interdisciplinary research and the use of new approaches, including human-animal geography, multispecies ethnography, and approaches from the environmental humanities notably environmental history. Managers should think carefully about how they engage with local cultural beliefs about wildlife, work with all parties to agree on what constitutes good evidence, develop processes and methods to mitigate conflicts, and decide how to monitor and evaluate these. Demand for immediate solutions that benefit both conservation and development favors dispute resolution and technical fixes, which obscures important underlying drivers of conflicts. If these drivers are not considered, well-intentioned efforts focused on human-wildlife conflicts will fail.

Leptospirosis acquisition following the reintroduction of wildlife.

Potential risks posed to domestic animals and human beings by zoonotic diseases in reintroduced animals can reduce the acceptability of reintroductions. The authors investigated the role of endangered water voles, Arvicola amphibius, as a host for leptospirosis, a waterborne zoonosis affecting a range of mammals. Based on samples from 112 individuals from across the UK, a 6.2 per cent exposure rate was found (7 animals were microscopic agglutination test (MAT) positive for serum antibodies), with 4 of 11 sites having positive animals. No individual was actively excreting leptospires in urine (PCR urine test, 0 per cent positive). The acquisition of Leptospira species by a cohort of 'clean' captive-bred voles reintroduced to one site in the wild was then examined. By four months postrelease the maximum exposure prevalence (by either MAT or culture) was 42.9 per cent. Thirty-five per cent were actively excreting leptospires. The rapidity of leptospire acquisition and comparatively high prevalence of infectious individuals is notable, exceeding expectation based on wild voles. One possible explanation is a lack of immunocompetence in reintroduced voles. Analyses of haematological parameters from reintroduced voles suggest a link between prior condition and disease acquisition. There may be potential to select the fittest animals before release to maximise reintroduction success.

In vivo compatibility of Dynesys(®) spinal implants: a case series of five retrieved periprosthetic tissue samples and corresponding implants.

PURPOSE: To determine whether particulate debris is present in periprosthetic tissue from revised Dynesys(®) devices, and if present, elicits a biological tissue reaction. METHODS: Five Dynesys(®) dynamic stabilization systems consisting of pedicle screws (Ti alloy), polycarbonate-urethane (PCU) spacers and a polyethylene-terephthalate (PET) cord were explanted for pain and screw loosening after a mean of 2.86 years (1.9-5.3 years). Optical microscopy and scanning electron microscopy were used to evaluate wear, deformation and surface damage, and attenuated total reflectance Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy to assess surface chemical composition of the spacers. Periprosthetic tissue morphology and wear debris were determined using light microscopy, and PCU and PET wear debris by polarized light microscopy. RESULTS: All implants had surface damage on the PCU spacers consistent with scratches and plastic deformation; 3 of 5 exhibited abrasive wear zones. In addition to fraying of the outer fibers of the PET cords in five implants, one case also evidenced cord fracture. The pedicle screws were unremarkable. Patient periprosthetic tissues around the three implants with visible PCU damage contained wear debris and a corresponding macrophage infiltration. For the patient revised for cord fracture, the tissues also contained large wear particles (>10 µm) and giant cells. Tissues from the other two patients showed comparable morphologies consisting of dense fibrous tissue with no inflammation or wear debris. CONCLUSIONS: This is the first study to evaluate wear accumulation and local tissue responses for explanted Dynesys(®) devices. Polymer wear debris and an associated foreign-body macrophage response were observed in three of five cases.

Helminth parasites in the endangered Ethiopian wolf, Canis simensis.

Ethiopian wolves, Canis simensis, are an endangered carnivore endemic to the Ethiopian highlands. Although previous studies have focused on aspects of Ethiopian wolf biology, including diet, territoriality, reproduction and infectious diseases such as rabies, little is known of their helminth parasites. In the current study, faecal samples were collected from 94 wild Ethiopian wolves in the Bale Mountains of southern Ethiopia, between August 2008 and February 2010, and were screened for the presence of helminth eggs using a semi-quantitative volumetric dilution method with microscopy. We found that 66 of the 94 faecal samples (70.2%) contained eggs from at least one group of helminths, including Capillaria, Toxocara, Trichuris, ancylostomatids, Hymenolepis and taeniids. Eggs of Capillaria sp. were found most commonly, followed by Trichuris sp., ancylostomatid species and Toxocara species. Three samples contained Hymenolepis sp. eggs, which were likely artefacts from ingested prey species. Four samples contained taeniid eggs, one of which was copro-polymerase chain reaction (copro-PCR) and sequence positive for Echinococcus granulosus, suggesting a spillover from a domestic parasite cycle into this wildlife species. Associations between presence/absence of Capillaria, Toxocara and Trichuris eggs were found; and egg burdens of Toxocara and ancylostomatids were found to be associated with geographical location and sampling season.

Neighbouring-group composition and within-group relatedness drive extra-group paternity rate in the European badger (Meles meles).

Extra-group paternity (EGP) occurs commonly among group-living mammals and plays an important role in mating systems and the dynamics of sexual selection; however, socio-ecological and genetic correlates of EGP have been underexplored. We use 23 years of demographic and genetic data from a high-density European badger (Meles meles) population, to investigate the relationship between the rate of EGP in litters and mate availability, mate incompatibility and mate quality (heterozygosity). Relatedness between within-group assigned mothers and candidate fathers had a negative quadratic effect on EGP, whereas the number of neighbouring-group candidate fathers had a linear positive effect. We detected no effect of mean or maximum heterozygosity of within-group candidate fathers on EGP. Consequently, EGP was associated primarily with mate availability, subject to within-group genetic effects, potentially to mitigate mate incompatibility and inbreeding. In badgers, cryptic female choice, facilitated by superfecundation, superfoetation and delayed implantation, prevents males from monopolizing within-group females. This resonates with a meta-analysis in group-living mammals, which proposed that higher rates of EGP occur when within-group males cannot monopolize within-group females. In contrast to the positive meta-analytic association, however, we found that EGP associated negatively with the number of within-group assigned mothers and the number of within-group candidate fathers; potentially a strategy to counter within-group males committing infanticide. The relationship between the rate of EGP and socio-ecological or genetic factors can therefore be intricate, and the potential for cryptic female choice must be accounted for in comparative studies.

Does organic farming reduce environmental impacts?--a meta-analysis of European research.

Organic farming practices have been promoted as, inter alia, reducing the environmental impacts of agriculture. This meta-analysis systematically analyses published studies that compare environmental impacts of organic and conventional farming in Europe. The results show that organic farming practices generally have positive impacts on the environment per unit of area, but not necessarily per product unit. Organic farms tend to have higher soil organic matter content and lower nutrient losses (nitrogen leaching, nitrous oxide emissions and ammonia emissions) per unit of field area. However, ammonia emissions, nitrogen leaching and nitrous oxide emissions per product unit were higher from organic systems. Organic systems had lower energy requirements, but higher land use, eutrophication potential and acidification potential per product unit. The variation within the results across different studies was wide due to differences in the systems compared and research methods used. The only impacts that were found to differ significantly between the systems were soil organic matter content, nitrogen leaching, nitrous oxide emissions per unit of field area, energy use and land use. Most of the studies that compared biodiversity in organic and conventional farming demonstrated lower environmental impacts from organic farming. The key challenges in conventional farming are to improve soil quality (by versatile crop rotations and additions of organic material), recycle nutrients and enhance and protect biodiversity. In organic farming, the main challenges are to improve the nutrient management and increase yields. In order to reduce the environmental impacts of farming in Europe, research efforts and policies should be targeted to developing farming systems that produce high yields with low negative environmental impacts drawing on techniques from both organic and conventional systems.

Predation by mammalian carnivores on nocturnal primates: is the lack of evidence support for the effectiveness of nocturnality as an antipredator strategy?

The apparent paucity of accounts of predation, particularly by felids, on nocturnal primates is confirmed by a quasi-systematic review of 1,939 publications which revealed just 1 case of a felid eating a nocturnal primate. This instance was amongst only 51 direct reports of predation by vertebrates on nocturnal primates (90% were on Madagascar, where 56% of approx. 110 nocturnal primate species occur), of which 41% were by birds of prey. These findings prompt discussion of two possibilities: (a) nocturnality is, in part, an effective antipredator adaptation, and (b) knowledge of nocturnal primates is so biased by their elusiveness and, for predation, underreporting (e.g. inadequate mechanisms to publish opportunistic observations) that understanding of their biology urgently necessitates both the collation of field observations and innovative research. Interspecific comparisons facilitate deductions about the role of predation in the evolution of primate nocturnality and associated traits, but intraspecific comparisons of changing activity rhythms in response to different levels of predation risk offer the most compelling insights into the functional significance of these adaptations.

Major histocompatibility complex diversity in the endangered Ethiopian wolf (Canis simensis).

The major histocompatibility complex (MHC) influences immune response to infection and vaccination. In most species, MHC genes are highly polymorphic, but few wild canid populations have been investigated. In Ethiopian wolves, we identified four DLA (dog leucocyte antigen)-DRB1, two DLA-DQA1 and five DQB1 alleles. Ethiopian wolves, the world's rarest canids with fewer than 500 animals worldwide, are further endangered and threatened by rabies. Major rabies outbreaks in the Bale Mountains of southern Ethiopia (where over half of the Ethiopian wolf population is located) have killed over 75% of wolves in the affected sub-populations. In 2004, following a rabies outbreak, 77 wolves were vaccinated, and 19 were subsequently recaptured to monitor the effectiveness of the intervention. Pre- and post-vaccination rabies antibody titres were available for 18 animals, and all of the animals sero-converted after vaccination. We compared the haplotype frequencies of this group of 18 with the post-vaccination antibody titre, and showed that one haplotype was associated with a lower response (uncorrected P < 0.03). In general, Ethiopian wolves probably have an adequate amount of MHC variation to ensure the survival of the species. However, we sampled only the largest Ethiopian wolf population in Bale, and did not take the smaller populations further north into consideration.

Leukocyte reactivity as an objective means of quantifying mental loading during ergonomic evaluation.

Psychological stress evokes rapid changes to the cardiovascular and neuroendocrine systems, responses that can become habituated following repeated exposure. This study, comprising of two phases, suggests that the immune system follows a similar trend. Phase 1: 15 healthy subjects (aged between 26 and 56years) provided capillary blood samples before and after completing three basic tasks using, in turn, two automotive touch screen interfaces (Interface 1-antecedent version, Interface 2-improved version). Using a chemiluminescent technique termed leukocyte coping capacity (LCC), the ability of leukocytes to produce reactive oxygen species in vitro was assessed. Significant differences in leukocyte activity were shown between treatment groups, where the greatest post-test decrease occurred after using Interface 1. Phase 2: a randomly selected sub-group (n=4) underwent weekly repeat testing using both interfaces. Significant differences in post-test leukocyte reactivity were exhibited between test weeks for each interface-the magnitude of response decreasing with successive exposure.

Fitness measures in selection analyses: sensitivity to the overall number of offspring produced in a lifetime.

Age at first (alpha) and last (omega) breeding are important life-history traits; however, the direction and strength of selection detected on traits may vary depending on the fitness measure used. We provide the first estimates of lifetime breeding success (LBS) and lambda(ind) (the population growth rate of an individual) of European badgers Meles meles, by genotyping 915 individuals, sampled over 18 years, for 22 microsatellites. Males are slightly larger than females, and the opportunity for selection was slightly greater for males, as predicted. lambda(ind) and LBS both performed well in predicting the number of grand-offspring, and both detected selection for a late omega, until the age of eight. Differential selection (S'(alpha)) for an early alpha, however, was only detected using LBS, not with lambda(ind). In declining populations (lambda(ind) < 1) selection favours reproduction later in life, whereas early reproduction is selected in increasing populations (lambda(ind) > 1). As 41% of badgers were assigned only one offspring (lambda(ind) < 1), whereas 40% were assigned more than two (lambda(ind) > 1), this cancelled out S'(alpha) measured by lambda(ind).

A model to search for birth probabilities of mammal populations using fertility data.

A model was constructed to predict monthly birth probabilities using mammalian fertility data. We used a sample of 147 female capybaras (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris) hunted on a farm on Marajó Island, Brazil. In the model each month was treated as a multinomial with six cells representing the six possible reproductive states (five months gestation). A hypothesis test was carried out to see whether a cosine curve would fit the birth probabilities. The results offer no support for a seasonal component (F2,9 = 1.84, P = 0.21), whereas results from a direct census do (F3,23 = 87.29, P < 0.01). Some hunting techniques were biased towards killing pregnant females (chi(2)1= 7.2, P< 0.01), thereby spreading reproduction throughout the year (F2,9 = 1.84, P = 0.21). The model remained a powerful predictive tool to be used with mammalian fertility data as long as the data are not biased towards pregnant females.

One hundred questions of importance to the conservation of global biological diversity.

We identified 100 scientific questions that, if answered, would have the greatest impact on conservation practice and policy. Representatives from 21 international organizations, regional sections and working groups of the Society for Conservation Biology, and 12 academics, from all continents except Antarctica, compiled 2291 questions of relevance to conservation of biological diversity worldwide. The questions were gathered from 761 individuals through workshops, email requests, and discussions. Voting by email to short-list questions, followed by a 2-day workshop, was used to derive the final list of 100 questions. Most of the final questions were derived through a process of modification and combination as the workshop progressed. The questions are divided into 12 sections: ecosystem functions and services, climate change, technological change, protected areas, ecosystem management and restoration, terrestrial ecosystems, marine ecosystems, freshwater ecosystems, species management, organizational systems and processes, societal context and change, and impacts of conservation interventions. We anticipate that these questions will help identify new directions for researchers and assist funders in directing funds.

Behavioral adjustments of African herbivores to predation risk by lions: spatiotemporal variations influence habitat use.

Predators may influence their prey populations not only through direct lethal effects, but also through indirect behavioral changes. Here, we combined spatiotemporal fine-scale data from GPS radio collars on lions with habitat use information on 11 African herbivores in Hwange National Park (Zimbabwe) to test whether the risk of predation by lions influenced the distribution of herbivores in the landscape. Effects of long-term risk of predation (likelihood of lion presence calculated over four months) and short-term risk of predation (actual presence of lions in the vicinity in the preceding 24 hours) were contrasted. The long-term risk of predation by lions appeared to influence the distributions of all browsers across the landscape, but not of grazers. This result strongly suggests that browsers and grazers, which face different ecological constraints, are influenced at different spatial and temporal scales in the variation of the risk of predation by lions. The results also show that all herbivores tend to use more open habitats preferentially when lions are in their vicinity, probably an effective anti-predator behavior against such an ambush predator. Behaviorally induced effects of lions may therefore contribute significantly to structuring African herbivore communities, and hence possibly their effects on savanna ecosystems.