Effects of racism on the socio-emotional wellbeing of Aboriginal Australian children.

BACKGROUND: Racism is a pervasive experience in the life of Aboriginal Australians that begins in childhood. As a psychosocial stressor, racism compromises wellbeing and impacts developmental trajectories. The purpose of the present study was to estimate the effect of racism on indicators of Australian Aboriginal child socio-emotional wellbeing (SEWB) at one to two years after exposure. Age-related differences in the onset of symptoms were explored. METHODS: Data from the B- and K-cohorts of the Longitudinal Study of Indigenous Children were used (aged 6 to 12 years). Racism, confounding variables, and the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (a measure of SEWB) were collected by questionnaires and guided interviews with each child's main caregiver. Adjusted Poisson regression was used to estimate the relative risk (RRa) effects of racism on SEWB for both cohorts separately. RRa were pooled in a random effects meta-analysis. RESULTS: Exposure to racism was associated with an adjusted point estimate indicating a 41% increased risk for total emotional and behavioural difficulties, although the confidence intervals were wide (pooled RRa 1.41, 95% CI 0.75, 2.07). Analyses by cohort showed younger children had higher RRa for total difficulties (RRa 1.72, 95% CI 1.16, 2.54), whilst older children had higher RRa for hyperactive behaviour (RRa 1.66, 95% CI 1.01, 2.73). CONCLUSIONS: The effects observed contributes to our understanding of the impact of racism on Aboriginal Australian children. Support for emotional and behavioural difficulties, and hyperactive behaviour, for Aboriginal children might help counteract the effects of racism. Future longitudinal research and policies aimed at reducing racism in Australian society are necessary.

First Report of Gray Mold (Amphobotrys ricini) on Copperleaf (Acalypha wilkesiana) in Brazil.

Acalypha wilkesiana (Euphorbiaceae), common names copperleaf or Jacob's coat (in Brazil, crista-de-peru), is a popular ornamental native from the Pacific islands. It is widely used in gardens in Brazil (4). In January 2012, a group of diseased A. wilkesiana was found in a nursery at the municipality of Itaboraí (state of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil). Later, another group of individuals of the same plant species bearing identical disease symptoms were found in a botanic garden in the city of Rio de Janeiro (Jardim Botânico do Rio de Janeiro). Diseased plants had intense leaf blight. Such leaves dropped over healthy leaves of the same or other plants and necrosis was hence initiated on such leaves. Inflorescences were also affected by blight and after becoming necrotic a dieback of supporting stems also resulted. Abundant grayish sporulation was easily observed over necrotic tissues. Samples were collected, dried in a plant press, and representative specimens were deposited in the herbarium at the Universidade Federal de Viçosa. These were from Itaboraí (VIC 31822) and from Rio de Janeiro (VIC 31931). Structures were mounted in lactophenol for observation under a microscope and isolated in pure culture on PCA plates. Isolates were deposited in the culture collection of the Universidade Federal de Viçosa with accession numbers of COAD 1112 and COAD 1108, respectively. The fungus had the following morphology: conidiophores cylindrical, up to 1,200 µm branching dicotomously at mid-length in broad angles and then branching secondarily, light brown; conidiogenous cells ampulliform, terminal, denticulate; conidia globose, 6 to 11 µm diam, subhyaline to pale brown, smooth. This combination of features is typical of Amphobotrys ricini (2), a common pathogen of castor bean (1) and several other members of the Euphorbiaceae. DNA was extracted from each isolate growing in pure culture and ITS sequences were generated and deposited in GenBank under the accession numbers JX961613 (COAD 1108) and JX961614 (COAD 1112). These were compared by BLASTn with other entries in GenBank, and the closest match for both isolates was A. ricini (JF433374) with 97% nucleotide homology (over 97% query coverage) for COAD 1112 and 98% nucleotide homology (over 98% query coverage) for COAD 1112. Pathogenicity of the isolate from A. wilkesiana was demonstrated through brush inoculation of a conidial suspension (3 × 106 conidia. mL-1) onto healthy leaves of a A. wilkesiana individual followed by its transfer to a humid chamber for 48 h. Symptoms appeared after 3 days of inoculation and sporulation appeared over necrotic tissues after 10 days. Despite the importance of A. ricini as a plant pathogen, little has been investigated on its taxonomy with molecular tools. Although morphology and host-association are the basis for the delimitation of A. ricini, our preliminary results for ITS sequences suggest that this species may include cryptic taxa that are not properly discriminated on a morphological and pathological basis. This report follows other novel reports of A. ricini on ornamental Euphorbiaceae in Brazil (3) and, to our knowledge, represents the first report of A. ricini on A. wilkesiana worldwide. References: (1) G. H. Godfrey. J. Agric. Res. 23:679, 1923. (2) G. L. Hennebert. Persoonia 7:183, 1973. (3) B. V. Lima et al. Australas. Plant Dis. Notes 3:5, 2008. (4) H. Lorenzi and H. M. Souza. Plantas Ornamentais no Brasil - Arbustivas, Herbáceas e Trepadeiras. Nova Odessa: Instituto Plantarum, 1999.

First Report of Downy Mildew (Hyaloperonospora lunariae) on White Mustard (Sinapis alba) in Brazil.

Sinapis alba (Brassicaceae), white mustard, is broadly cultivated for its seed used as component of table mustard (4). In June 2013, a group of diseased S. alba were observed in a vegetable garden on the campus of the Universidade Federal de Viçosa (municipality of Viçosa, state of Minas Gerais, Brazil). Foliage of diseased plants showed numerous chlorotic areas that developed into severe leaf blight with abundant downy mildew growth abaxially. A dried representative specimen has been deposited in the herbarium at the Universidade Federal de Viçosa (accession no. VIC 39743). The fungus had the following morphology: Sporangiophores arborescent, dichotomously branched, 540 to 840 × 8 to 10 µm hyaline, smooth, branches 105 to 210 µm long; esterigmata subacutate and curved, in pairs, 15 to 42 µm long; sporangia globose, 18 to 24 × 15 to 18 µm, hyaline, smooth. DNA was extracted using a Wizard Promega purification kit. The cytochrome oxidase subunit II (COX2) region was amplified with COX2f and COX2r primers (3). The sequence has been deposited in GenBank (Accession No. KJ396953). DNA sequences representing morphologically similar taxa were downloaded from GenBank nucleotide database, aligned in MEGA 5, and analyzed using Bayesian inference and Markov chain Monte Carlo simulation implemented in MrBayes 3.0 with five repetitions. A sequence of Albugo candida was used as outgroup in the analysis. The morphological characteristics places the fungus on S. alba in the complex of species of Pernosporaceae that attack the Brassicaceae. These are notoriously difficult to discriminate by morphology but our COX2-based phylogenetic analysis places it in Hyaloperonospora lunariae (1). This species was previously only known to cause downy mildew on other species of Brassicaceae (Lunaria annua and Erucastrum nasturtiifolium) in Europe (2). To our knowledge, this is the first report of this pathogen-host association in the world. References: (1) O. Constantinescu and J. Fatehi. Nova Hediwigia 74:291, 2002 (2) D. F. Farr and A. Y. Rossman. Fungal Databases, Systematic Mycology and Microbiology Laboratory. Online publication. ARS, USDA, 2013. (3) D. S. S. Hudspeth et al. Mycologia 92:674, 2000. (4) B. B. Simpson and M. C. Ogorzaly. Econonic Botany. McGraw Hill, San Diego, CA, 2001.

Sclerotium rolfsii Causing Stem Rot of Impatiens walleriana in Brazil.

Impatiens walleriana, busy lizzy or balsam (local names in Brazil maria-sem-vergonha or beijo-de-frade), is an African member of the Balsaminaceae that has long ago been introduced and established in Brazil. It is now widely cultivated commercially as a potted plant and a popular garden plant (3). It also is a common weed along the coast and is particularly troublesome in some banana plantation areas. There are only two records of fungal pathogens attacking this plant in Brazil: Cercospora fukushiana (leaf spot) and Oidiopsis haplophylli (powdery mildew). In January 2009, a population of diseased plants of I. walleriana was found in a private garden in the city of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Plants had rotted and girdled stem bases, leading to a collapse of stems Necrotic areas were covered with fans of white mycelium as well as abundant spherical sclerotia. The fungus was isolated in pure culture by direct aseptic transfer of mycelial fragments and sclerotia to potato dextrose agar (PDA) plates. Colonies were white, cottony, often forming fans, primary hyphae 3.0 to 6.0 µm in diameter, and bearing clamp connections; sclerotia formed after 7 days, initially white becoming dark brown with age, and 0.8 to 1.85 mm in diameter. These are typical features of Sclerotium rolfsii. A specimen was deposited in the local herbarium (Herbarium VIC) under Accession No. VIC 30732. Koch's postulates were performed by inoculating three healthy potted I. walleriana plants (10 × 40 cm high) with approximately 100 freshly collected sclerotia placed in close vicinity with the stem bases. Noninoculated plants kept in a separate pot served as controls. Plants were incubated in a dew chamber for 48 h at 25 ± 2°C. All inoculated plants showed symptoms of stem rot 72 h after inoculation, whereas controls remained healthy. S. rolfsii is a highly polyphagous species that has been recorded to be causing rots (also known as Southern blights) in Brazil on numerous hosts but there are no records of it attacking any members of the Balsaminaceae in Brazil. The only other published records of S. rolfsii on Impatiens spp. are from the United States (Hawaii and Illinois) (2) and the Philippines (1). In South America, there is a single report from Argentina (4) where the disease is regarded as a major threat to the potted plant industry because I. walleriana is one of the most popular potted plants in that country. The potential for losses is also significant for Brazil. To our knowledge, this is the first report of S. rolfsii as a pathogen of I. walleriana in Brazil. Although very damaging to I. walleriana, it is unlikely that this fungus can be used as a natural enemy of this plant species in weed situations because of its wide host range. References: (1) T. O. Dizon and R. B. Pimentel. Philipp. Phytopathol. 29:101, 1993. (2) D. F. Farr and A. Y. Rossman. Fungal Databases, Systematic Mycology and Microbiology Laboratory. Online publication. ARS, USDA, 2009. (3) H. Lorenzi and H. M. Souza. Plantas Ornamentais no Brasil - Arbustivas, Herbáceas e Trepadeiras. Nova Odessa: Instituto Plantarum, 1995. (4). S. M. Wolcan and P. J. Grego. Australas. Plant Dis. Notes 4:54, 2009.