Nonparaxial accelerating waves as a superposition of nondiffracting Bessel-lattice optical fields.

In the first part of this work, we introduce a monochromatic solution to the scalar wave equation in free space, defined by a superposition of monochromatic nondiffracting half Bessel-lattice optical fields, which is determined by two scalar functions; one is defined on frequency space, and the other is a complete integral to the eikonal equation in free space. We obtain expressions for the geometrical wavefronts, the caustic region, and the Poynting vector. We highlight that this solution is stable under small perturbations because it is characterized by a caustic of the hyperbolic umbilical type. In the second part, we introduce the corresponding solution to the Maxwell equations in free space.

Exact mirror equation via Berry's caustic touching theorem: plane and spherical mirrors.

In this work, we assume that in free space we have an observer, a smooth mirror, and an object placed at arbitrary positions. The aim is to obtain, within the geometrical optics approximation, an exact set of equations that gives the image position of the object registered by the observer. The general results are applied to plane and spherical mirrors, as an application of the caustic touching theorem introduced by Berry; the regions where the observer can receive zero, one, two, three, and one circle of reflected light rays are determined. Furthermore, we show that under the restricted paraxial approximation, that is, when sin⁡ψ≈ψ and cos⁡ψ≈1, the exact set of equations provides the well-known mirror equation.

Refracting and reflecting interfaces transforming a given wavefront into another one.

The aim of this work is threefold. First, following Luneburg and using our own notation, we review the Cartesian ovals. Second, we obtain analytical expressions for the reflecting and refracting surfaces that transform a prescribed smooth two-dimensional wavefront into a spherical one. These results are applied to show that the reflecting surface that connects a plane wavefront to a spherical one is a parabolical surface, and we design a lens, with two freeform surfaces, that transforms a spherical wavefront into another spherical one. These examples show that our equations provide the well-known solution for these problems, which is given by the Cartesian ovals method. Third, we present a procedure to obtain exact expressions for the refracting and reflecting surfaces that connect two given arbitrary wavefronts; that is, by assuming that the optical path length between two points on the prescribed wavefronts is given by the designer the refracting and reflecting surfaces we are looking for are determined by a set of two algebraic equations, which in the general case have to be solved in a numerical way. These general results are applied to compute the analytical expressions for the reflecting and refracting surfaces that transform a parabolical initial wavefront into a plane one.

Automation Pyramid as Constructor for a Complete Digital Twin, Case Study: A Didactic Manufacturing System.

Nowadays, the concept of Industry 4.0 aims to improve factories' competitiveness. Usually, manufacturing production is guided by standards to segment and distribute its processes and implementations. However, industry 4.0 requires innovative proposals for disruptive technologies that engage the entire production process in factories, not just a partial improvement. One of these disruptive technologies is the Digital Twin (DT). This advanced virtual model runs in real-time and can predict, detect, and classify normal and abnormal operating conditions in factory processes. The Automation Pyramid (AP) is a conceptual element that enables the efficient distribution and connection of different actuators in enterprises, from the shop floor to the decision-making levels. When a DT is deployed into a manufacturing system, generally, the DT focuses on the low-level that is named field level, which includes the physical devices such as controllers, sensors, and so on. Thus, the partial automation based on the DT is accomplished, and the information between all manufacturing stages could be decremented. Hence, to achieve a complete improvement of the manufacturing system, all the automation pyramid levels must be included in the DT concept. An artificial intelligent management system could create an interconnection between them that can manage the information. As a result, this paper proposed a complete DT structure covering all automation pyramid stages using Artificial Intelligence (AI) to model each stage of the AP based on the Digital Twin concept. This work proposes a virtual model for each level of the traditional AP and the interactions among them to flow and control information efficiently. Therefore, the proposed model is a valuable tool in improving all levels of an industrial process. In addition, It is presented a case study where the DT concept for modular workstations underpins the development of technologies within the framework of the Automation Pyramid model is implemented into a didactic manufacturing system.

Classical characterization of quantum waves: comparison between the caustic and the zeros of the Madelung-Bohm potential.

From a geometric perspective, the caustic is the most classical description of a wave function since its evolution is governed by the Hamilton-Jacobi equation. On the other hand, according to the Madelung-de Broglie-Bohm equations, the most classical description of a solution to the Schrödinger equation is given by the zeros of the Madelung-Bohm potential. In this work, we compare these descriptions, and, by analyzing how the rays are organized over the caustic, we find that the wave functions with fold caustic are the most classical beams because the zeros of the Madelung-Bohm potential coincide with the caustic. For another type of beam, the Madelung-Bohm potential is in general distinct to zero over the caustic. We have verified these results for the one-dimensional Airy and Pearcey beams, which, according to the catastrophe theory, have stable caustics. Similarly, we introduce the optical Madelung-Bohm potential, and we show that if the optical beam has a caustic of the fold type, then its zeros coincide with the caustic. We have verified this fact for the Bessel beams of nonzero order. Finally, we remark that for certain cases, the zeros of the Madelung-Bohm potential are linked with the superoscillation phenomenon.

The vector Durnin-Whitney beam.

We show that $(\textbf{E},\textbf{H})=({\textbf{E}_0},{\textbf{H}_0}){e^{i[{k_0}S(\textbf{r})-\omega t]}}$(E,H)=(E0,H0)ei[k0S(r)-ωt] is an exact solution to the Maxwell equations in free space if and only if $\{{\textbf{E}_0},{\textbf{H}_0},\nabla S\}${E0,H0,∇S} form a mutually perpendicular, right-handed set and $S(\textbf{r})$S(r) is a solution to both the eikonal and Laplace equations. By using a family of solutions to both the eikonal and Laplace equations and the superposition principle, we define new solutions to the Maxwell equations. We show that the vector Durnin beams are particular examples of this type of construction. We introduce the vector Durnin-Whitney beams characterized by locally stable caustics, fold and cusp ridge types. These vector fields are a natural generalization of the vector Bessel beams. Furthermore, the scalar Durnin-Whitney-Gauss beams and their associated caustics are also obtained. We find that the caustics qualitatively describe, except for the zero-order vector Bessel beam, the corresponding maxima of the intensity patterns.

Paraxial optical fields whose intensity pattern skeletons are stable caustics.

We construct exact solutions to the paraxial wave equation in free space characterized by stable caustics. First, we show that any solution of the paraxial wave equation can be written as the superposition of plane waves determined by both the Hamilton-Jacobi and Laplace equations in free space. Then using the five elementary stable catastrophes, we construct solutions of the Hamilton-Jacobi and Laplace equations, and the corresponding exact solutions of the paraxial wave equation. Therefore, the evolution of the intensity patterns is governed by the paraxial wave equation and that of the corresponding caustic by the Hamilton-Jacobi equation.

Wavefronts and caustics associated with Mathieu beams.

In this work we compute the wavefronts and the caustics associated with the solutions to the scalar wave equation introduced by Durnin in elliptical cylindrical coordinates generated by the function A(ϕ)=ceν(ϕ,q)+iseν(ϕ,q), with ν being an integral or nonintegral number. We show that the wavefronts and the caustic are invariant under translations along the direction of evolution of the beam. We remark that the wavefronts of the separable Mathieu beams generated by A(ϕ)=ceν(ϕ,q) and A(ϕ)=seν(ϕ,q) are cones and their caustic is the z axis; thus, they are not structurally stable. However, in general, the Mathieu beam generated by A(ϕ)=ceν(ϕ,q)+iseν(ϕ,q) is stable because locally its caustic has singularities of the fold and cusp types. To show this property, we present the wavefronts and the caustics for the Mathieu beams with characteristic value aν=0 and q=0,0.2,0.3,0.5. For q=0, we obtain the Bessel beam of order zero; in this case, the wavefronts are cones and the caustic coincides with the z axis. For q≠0, the wavefronts are deformations of conical ones, and the caustic surface, for some values of q, has singularities of the cusp ridge type. Furthermore, we remark that the set of Mathieu beams with characteristic value aν=0 and 0≤q<1 has associated a caustic with singularities of the swallowtail type, which is structurally stable. Therefore, we conclude that this type of Mathieu beam is more stable than plane waves, Bessel beams, parabolic beams, and those generated by A(ϕ)=ceν(ϕ,q) and A(ϕ)=seν(ϕ,q). To support this conclusion, we present experimental results showing the pattern obtained after obstructing a plane wave, the Bessel beam of order m=5, and the Mathieu beam of order m=5 and q=50 with complex transversal amplitude given by Ce5(ξ,50)ce5(η,50)+iSe5(ξ,50)se5(η,50), where (ξ, η) are the elliptical coordinates on the plane.

Wavefronts, caustic, and intensity of a plane wave refracted by an arbitrary surface: the axicon and the plano spherical lenses.

The aim of the present work is to obtain an integral representation of the field associated with the refraction of a plane wave by an arbitrary surface. To this end, in the first part we consider two optical media with refraction indexes n1 and n2 separated by an arbitrary interface, and we show that the optical path length, ϕ, associated with the evolution of the plane wave is a complete integral of the eikonal equation in the optical medium with refraction index n2. Then by using the k function procedure introduced by Stavroudis, we define a new complete integral, S, of the eikonal equation. We remark that both complete integrals in general do not provide the same information; however, they give the geometrical wavefronts, light rays, and the caustic associated with the refraction of the plane wave. In the second part, using the Fresnel-Kirchhoff diffraction formula and the complete integral, S, we obtain an integral representation for the field associated only with the refraction phenomena, the geometric field approximation, in terms of secondary plane waves and the k-function introduced by Stavroudis in solving the problem from the geometrical optics point of view. We use the general results to compute: the wavefronts, light rays, caustic, and the intensity associated with the refraction of a plane wave by an axicon and plano-spherical lenses.