Effects of Ferulic Acid on Cognitive Function: A Systematic Review.

SCOPE: Plant (poly) phenolic compounds have been reported to decrease the risk of developing dementia and have been associated with maintenance of cognitive performance in normal ageing. Ferulic acid (FA) is a phenolic acid, present in a wide variety of foods including cereals, fruits, vegetables, and coffee. The aim of this systematic review is to examine the effect of FA on cognitive function in humans and animals. METHODS AND RESULTS: The search terms "Ferulic acid AND cognit*" and "Ferulic acid OR feruloyl OR ferula AND (memory OR attention OR learning OR recognition)" are used in Web of Science, Scopus, PubMED, OVID (Medline/PsycInfo), and CINAHL through October 2023. No human studies are identified that matched the inclusion criteria. Twenty-six animal studies are identified. A small number (n = 5) of these studies examined FA in healthy animals whilst the remainder examined animal models of dementia. Alzheimer's disease (n = 11) is the most prevalent model. CONCLUSION: Overall, results from studies employing disease models suggest that FA ameliorates induced cognitive decline in a time and dose-dependent manner. Similarly, studies in healthy animals show a beneficial effect of FA. However, further studies are required to determine the effects of FA on human cognitive function.

Effect of beta glucan coating on controlled release, bioaccessibility, and absorption of ß-carotene from loaded liposomes.

Recently, the use of biopolymers as coating material to stabilise phospholipid-based nanocarriers has increased. One such class of biopolymers is the dietary fibre beta-glucan (ßG). In this study, we developed and characterized beta-carotene (ßC) loaded ßG coated nanoliposomes (GNLs) to investigate the effect of ßG coating on the stability, controlled release, bioaccessibility, diffusion and subsequent absorption of the lipophilic active agent. The size, charge (Z-potential), and FTIR spectra were measured to determine the physicochemical stability of GNLs. ßG coating reduced the bioaccessibility, provided prolonged release and improved the antioxidant activity of the nanoliposomes. Multiple particle tracking (MPT) data suggested that ßC-GNLs were less diffusive in porcine intestinal mucus (PIM). Additionally, the microviscosity of the PIM treated with GNLs was observed to be higher (0.04744 ± 0.00865 Pa s) than the PIM incubated with uncoated NLs (0.015 ± 0.0004 Pa s). An Ex vivo experiment was performed on mouse jejunum to measure the absorption of beta-carotene from coated (ßC-GNLs) and uncoated nanoliposomes (ßC-NLs). Data showed that after 2 hours, 27.7 ± 1.3 ng mL-1 of ßC encapsulated in GNLs and 61.54 ± 3 ng mL-1 of the ßC encapsulated in uncoated NLs was absorbed by mouse intestinal mucosa. These results highlight that coating with ßG stabilise NLs during gastrointestinal digestion and provides more sustained release of ßC from nanoliposomes.

The role of food structure in gastric-emptying rate, absorption and metabolism.

The high levels of non-communicable diseases such as CVD and type 2 diabetes mellitus are linked to obesity and poor diet. This continuing emphasis on health in relation to food is proving a powerful driver for the development of cheap but palatable and more functional foods. However, the efficacy of such foods is often hard to prove in human subjects. Thus, a suite of tools has been developed including in silico and in vitro simulations and animal models. Although animal models offer physiologically relevant platforms for research, their use for experimentation is problematic for consumers. Thus, in vitro methods such as Infogest protocols have been developed to provide digestion endpoints or even an indication of the kinetics of digestion. These protocols have been validated for a range of food systems but they still miss the final absorption step. This review discusses the use of such in vitro models and what further steps need to be included to make the bioaccessibility determination more relevant to bioavailability and human health.

Allergenicity evaluation of quinoa proteins - A study in Brown Norway rats.

The popularity of quinoa seeds has increased in the last decade due to their high nutritional value and natural gluten-free composition. Consumption of new proteins may pose a risk of introducing new allergies. In the present study the immunogenicity and sensitising capacity of quinoa proteins were assessed in a dose-response experiment in Brown Norway rats in comparison to proteins from spinach and peanut. Cross-reactivity between quinoa proteins and known allergens was evaluated by in silico analyses followed by analyses with 11 selected protein extracts and their anti-sera by means of ELISAs and immunoblotting. Further, an in vitro simulated gastro-duodenal digestion was performed. Quinoa proteins were found to have an inherent medium to high immunogenicity and sensitising capacity, being able to induce specific IgG1 and IgE levels higher than spinach but lower than peanut and elicit reactions of clinical relevance similar to peanut. Quinoa proteins were generally shown to resist digestion and retain capacity to bind quinoa-specific antibodies. Quinoa proteins were shown to be cross-reactive with peanut and tree nut allergens as high sequence homology and antibody cross-binding were demonstrated. Present study suggests that quinoa pose a medium to high level of allergenicity that should be further investigated in human studies.

γ-Cyclodextrin Metal-Organic Frameworks: Do Solvents Make a Difference?

Conventionally, methanol is the solvent of choice in the synthesis of gamma-cyclodextrin metal-organic frameworks (γ-CD-MOFs), but using ethanol as a replacement could allow for a more food-grade synthesis condition. Therefore, the aim of the study was to compare the γ-CD-MOFs synthesised with both methanol and ethanol. The γ-CD-MOFs were characterised by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), surface area and pore measurement, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and powder X-ray diffraction (PXRD). The encapsulation efficiency (EE) and loading capacity (LC) of the γ-CD-MOFs were also determined for curcumin, using methanol, ethanol and a mixture of the two as encapsulation solvent. It was found that γ-CD-MOFs synthesised by methanol and ethanol do not differ greatly, the most significant difference being the larger crystal size of γ-CD-MOFs crystallised from ethanol. However, the change in solvent significantly influenced the EE and LC of the crystals. The higher solubility of curcumin in ethanol reduced interactions with the γ-CD-MOFs and resulted in lowered EE and LC. This suggests that different solvents should be used to deliberately manipulate the EE and LC of target compounds for better use of γ-CD-MOFs as their encapsulating and delivery agents.

Small intestine vs. colon ecology and physiology: Why it matters in probiotic administration.

Research on gut microbiota has generally focused on fecal samples, representing luminal content of the large intestine. However, nutrient uptake is restricted to the small intestine. Abundant immune cell populations at this anatomical site combined with diminished mucus secretion and looser junctions (partly to allow for more efficient fluid and nutrient absorption) also results in intimate host-microbe interactions despite more rapid transit. It is thus crucial to dissect key differences in both ecology and physiology between small and large intestine to better leverage the immense potential of human gut microbiota imprinting, including probiotic engraftment at biological sensible niches. Here, we provide a detailed review unfolding how the physiological and anatomical differences between the small and large intestine affect gut microbiota composition, function, and plasticity. This information is key to understanding how gut microbiota manipulation, including probiotic administration, may strain-dependently transform host-microbe interactions at defined locations.

Effect of Red-Beetroot-Supplemented Diet on Gut Microbiota Composition and Metabolite Profile of Weaned Pigs-A Pilot Study.

Red beetroot is a well-recognized and established source of bioactive compounds (e.g., betalains and polyphenols) with anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial properties. It is proposed as a potential alternative to zinc oxide with a focus on gut microbiota modulation and metabolite production. In this study, weaned pigs aged 28 days were fed either a control diet, a diet supplemented with zinc oxide (3000 mg/kg), or 2% and 4% pulverized whole red beetroot (CON, ZNO, RB2, and RB4; respectively) for 14 days. After pigs were euthanized, blood and digesta samples were collected for microbial composition and metabolite analyses. The results showed that the diet supplemented with red beetroot at 2% improved the gut microbial richness relative to other diets but marginally influenced the cecal microbial diversity compared to a zinc-oxide-supplemented diet. A further increase in red beetroot levels (4%-RB4) led to loss in cecal diversity and decreased short chain fatty acids and secondary bile acid concentrations. Also, an increased Proteobacteria abundance, presumably due to increased lactate/lactic-acid-producing bacteria was observed. In summary, red beetroot contains several components conceived to improve the gut microbiota and metabolite output of weaned pigs. Future studies investigating individual components of red beetroot will better elucidate their contributions to gut microbiota modulation and pig health.

Evaluation of physicochemical properties of honey powder using rice and pea proteins as carriers.

Honey is a special product widely appreciated because of its peculiar flavor and aroma as well as its beneficial effects on health due to its constituents. However, the use of honey in its natural form can present several disadvantages to the food industry because of its high viscosity and density. This work aimed to obtain honey powder using rice, pea, or a mixture of both proteins as carriers by spray drying and to characterize physiochemically. Also, the mass balance was performed to evaluate changes in humidity and temperature that occurred by the drying air during the process. The honey showed acceptable physicochemical parameters by the legislation of honey quality control in regard to color (143.43 ± 4.34) mm Pfund, free acidity (46.41 ± 0.53) meq/kg, pH (3.73 ± 0.03), fructose content (46.52 ± 0.56) g/100 g and glucose content (35.88 ± 0.16) g/100 g, which leads to the production of honey powder. Among the carriers tested, the honey powder using rice protein achieved the highest powder recovery yield at (64.88 ± 0.64) %. The physicochemical properties were evaluated and the phenolic compounds were not negatively affected by spray drying conditions, maintaining a value of gallic acid equivalent (GAE) content at (301.31 ± 20.95) mg/kg of honey. Therefore, this work shows honey as an alternative food ingredient in powdered form, including the growing market for using alternative protein.

Dose and route of administration determine the efficacy of prophylactic immunotherapy for peanut allergy in a Brown Norway rat model.

Introduction: Allergen-specific immunotherapy (IT) is emerging as a viable option for treatment of peanut allergy. Yet, prophylactic IT remains unexplored despite early introduction of peanut in infancy was shown to prevent allergy. There is a need to understand how allergens interact with the immune system depending on the route of administration, and how different dosages of allergen may protect from sensitisation and a clinical active allergy. Here we compared peanut allergen delivery via the oral, sublingual (SL), intragastric (IG) and subcutaneous (SC) routes for the prevention of peanut allergy in Brown Norway (BN) rats. Methods: BN rats were administered PBS or three different doses of peanut protein extract (PPE) via either oral IT (OIT), SLIT, IGIT or SCIT followed by intraperitoneal (IP) injections of PPE to assess the protection from peanut sensitisation. The development of IgE and IgG1 responses to PPE and the major peanut allergens were evaluated by ELISAs. The clinical response to PPE was assessed by an ear swelling test (EST) and proliferation was assessed by stimulating splenocytes with PPE. Results: Low and medium dose OIT (1 and 10 mg) and all doses of SCIT (1, 10, 100 µg) induced sensitisation to PPE, whereas high dose OIT (100 mg), SLIT (10, 100 or 1000 µg) or IGIT (1, 10 and 100 mg) did not. High dose OIT and SLIT as well as high and medium dose IGIT prevented sensitisation from the following IP injections of PPE and suppressed PPE-specific IgE levels in a dose-dependent manner. Hence, administration of peanut protein via different routes confers different risks for sensitisation and protection from peanut allergy development. Overall, the IgE levels toward the individual major peanut allergens followed the PPE-specific IgE levels. Discussion: Collectively, this study showed that the preventive effect of allergen-specific IT is determined by the interplay between the specific site of PPE delivery for presentation to the immune system, and the allergen quantity, and that targeting and modulating tolerance mechanisms at specific mucosal sites may be a prophylactic strategy for prevention of peanut allergy.

An ex vivo intestinal absorption model is more effective than an in vitro cell model to characterise absorption of dietary carotenoids following simulated gastrointestinal digestion.

To get the most accurate food digestion-related data, and how this affects nutrient absorption, it is critical to carefully simulate human digestion systems using model settings. In this study, the uptake and transepithelial transportation of dietary carotenoids was compared using two different models that have previously been used to assess nutrient availability. The permeability of differentiated Caco-2 cells and murine intestinal tissue were tested using all-trans-ß-carotene and lutein prepared in artificial mixed micelles and micellar fraction from orange-fleshed sweet potato (OFSP) gastrointestinal digestion. Transepithelial transport and absorption efficiency were then determined using liquid chromatography tandem-mass spectrometry (LCMS-MS). Results showed that the mean uptake for all-trans-ß-carotene in the mouse mucosal tissue was 60.2 ± 3.2% compared to 36.7 ± 2.6% in the Caco-2 cells with the mixed micelles as the test sample. Similarly, the mean uptake was higher in OFSP with 49.4 ± 4.1% following mouse tissue uptake compared to 28.9 ± 4.3% using Caco-2 cells for the same concentration. In relation to the uptake efficiency, the mean percentage uptake for all-trans-ß-carotene from artificial mixed micelles was 1.8-fold greater in mouse tissue compared to Caco-2 cells (35.4 ± 1.8% against 19.9 ± 2.6%). Carotenoid uptake reached saturation at 5 µM when assessed with the mouse intestinal cells. These results demonstrate the practicality of employing physiologically relevant models simulating human intestinal absorption processes that compares well with published human in vivo data. When used in combination with the Infogest digestion model, the Ussing chamber model, using murine intestinal tissue, may thus be an efficient predictor of carotenoid bioavailability in simulating human postprandial absorption ex vivo.

The impact of processing on the release and antioxidant capacity of ferulic acid from wheat: A systematic review.

The antioxidant capacity and bioaccessibility of ferulic acid (FA)1 in wheat are highly limited by the lack of free ferulic acid (FFA).2 However, many studies claim that wheat processing can efficiently increase FFA content and ultimately influence the overall antioxidant capacity. Hence, this systematic review investigated changes in FFA content, antioxidant capacity and bioaccessibility of wheat after different processing treatments. A literature search of two databases (PubMed and Web of Science) was undertaken covering the last 20 years, yielding 1148 articles. Studies which employed bioprocessing, thermal processing and milling of wheat were considered. After exclusion criteria were applied, 36 articles were included. These covered single processing methods (n = 25, bioprocessing: n = 9, thermal processing: n = 9, milling n = 7) and combined processing methods (n = 11, bioprocessing & thermal processing = 7, bioprocessing, thermal processing & milling = 2, thermal processing & milling = 2). The total ferulic acid (TFA)3 content, degree of covalent bond hydrolysis and the percentage of FFA degraded or transformed to other compounds dominated the final changes in FFA content, antioxidant capacity and bioaccessibility. This systematic review is the first to comprehensively summarize the best efficient processing method for releasing FA and increasing antioxidant capacity and or bioaccessibility in wheat. The combination of particle size reduction, pre-hydrolysis thermal processing (except at high temperature and extended duration) and enzymatic hydrolysis (ferulic acid esterase (FAE)4 or fermentation) has the highest potential of releasing FA. However, the literature on the bioaccessibility of FA in wheat is limited and more work is required to demonstrate the link between the release of FA by processing and the consequent health benefits.

Influence of the particle size of encapsulated chia oil on the oil release and bioaccessibility during in vitro gastrointestinal digestion.

Among vegetable oils, chia oil has been gaining interest in recent years due to its high linolenic acid content (ALA, 18:3 ω3). The aim of this work was to study the influence of the particle size of encapsulated purified chia oil (PCO) on the encapsulation efficiency and PCO release during in vitro digestion. PCO micro- and nano-sized particles with sodium alginate (SA) as an encapsulating agent (ME-PCO-SA and NE-PCO-SA) were designed by micro and nano spray-drying, respectively, applying a central composite plus star point experimental design. NE-PCO-SA showed a smaller particle size and higher encapsulation efficiency of PCO than ME-PCO-SA (0.16 µm vs. 3.5 µm; 98.1% vs. 92.0%). Emulsions (NE-PCO and ME-PCO) and particles (NE-PCO-SA and ME-PCO-SA) were subjected to in vitro static gastrointestinal digestion. ME-PCO and NE-PCO showed sustained oil release throughout the three phases of digestion (oral, gastric and intestinal phases), whereas the PCO release from ME-PCO-SA and NE-PCO-SA occurred mainly in the intestinal phase, showing the suitability of sodium alginate as an intestine-site release polymer. Nano-sized particles showed a significantly higher PCO release after in vitro digestion (NE-PCO-SA, 78.4%) than micro-sized particles (ME-PCO-SA, 69.8%), and also higher bioaccessibility of individual free fatty acids, such as C18:3 ω-3 (NE-PCO-SA, 23.6%; ME-PCO-SA, 7.9%), due to their greater surface area. However, when ME-PCO-SA and NE-PCO-SA were incorporated into yogurt, the PCO release from both particle systems after the digestion of the matrix was similar (NE-PCO-SA, 58.8%; ME-PCO-SA-Y, 61.8%), possibly because the calcium ions contained in the yogurt induced partial ionic gelation of SA, impairing the PCO release. Sodium alginate spray-dried micro and nanoparticles showed great potential for vehiculation of omega-3 rich oils in the design of functional foods.

Importance of Bile Composition for Diagnosis of Biliary Obstructions.

Determination of the cause of a biliary obstruction is often inconclusive from serum analysis alone without further clinical tests. To this end, serum markers as well as the composition of bile of 74 patients with biliary obstructions were determined to improve the diagnoses. The samples were collected from the patients during an endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP). The concentration of eight bile salts, specifically sodium cholate, sodium glycocholate, sodium taurocholate, sodium glycodeoxycholate, sodium chenodeoxycholate, sodium glycochenodeoxycholate, sodium taurodeoxycholate, and sodium taurochenodeoxycholate as well as bile cholesterol were determined by HPLC-MS. Serum alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate transaminase (AST), and bilirubin were measured before the ERCP. The aim was to determine a diagnostic factor and gain insights into the influence of serum bilirubin as well as bile salts on diseases. Ratios of conjugated/unconjugated, primary/secondary, and taurine/glycine conjugated bile salts were determined to facilitate the comparison to literature data. Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves were determined, and the cut-off values were calculated by determining the point closest to (0,1). It was found that serum bilirubin was a good indicator of the type of biliary obstruction; it was able to differentiate between benign obstructions such as choledocholithiasis (at the concentration of >11 µmol/L) and malignant changes such as pancreatic neoplasms or cholangiocarcinoma (at the concentration of >59 µmol/L). In addition, it was shown that conjugated/unconjugated bile salts confirm the presence of an obstruction. With lower levels of conjugated/unconjugated bile salts the possibility for inflammation and, thus, neoplasms increase.

Size and Number of Food Boluses in the Stomach after Eating Different Meals: Magnetic Resonance Imaging Insights in Healthy Humans.

Oral processing of food results in the formation of food boluses, which are then swallowed and reach the stomach for further digestion. The number, size and surface properties of the boluses will affect their processing and emptying from the stomach. Knowledge of these parameters, however, is incomplete due to limitations of the techniques used. In this work, non-invasive magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) was used for the first time to measure boluses in the stomach a few minutes after swallowing. Three groups of nine healthy participants were fed three different meals: chicken and roasted vegetables (Meal 1), bread and jam (Meal 2) and cheese and yogurt (Meal 3), and then, their stomach content was imaged. The median number of boluses within the stomach was 282, 106 and 9 for Meal 1, Meal 2 and Meal 3 (p < 0.0001) with an average volume of 0.47 mL, 2.4 mL and 13.6 mL, respectively (p < 0.0001). The cohesiveness as well as the meal composition seem to play a key role in the resulting boluses. These new in vivo data from undisturbed organ imaging can improve knowledge of the digestion process, which will, in turn, inform in vitro and in silico modelling of digestion, thus improving their in vitro/in vivo relevance.

Enhanced stability and controlled gastrointestinal digestion of ß-carotene loaded Pickering emulsions with particle-particle complex interfaces.

In this study, we used large, rigid, and hydrophilic zein-propylene glycol alginate composite particles (ZPCPs) and small, soft, and hydrophobic whey protein microgel (WPM) particles to synergistically stabilize a Pickering emulsion for delivery of ß-carotene. The photothermal stability and storage stability of ß-carotene were improved with the combined use of different particles. Microstructural observations showed that ZPCPs were effectively adsorbed at the oil/water interface despite the substantial interparticle gaps. WPM particles could swell and stretch on the interface due to their deformable structure, thereby forming an interfacial layer of flattened particles to cover a large surface area. The interfacial structure and macroscopic properties of Pickering emulsions were modulated by adjusting the mass ratio and addition sequence of different particles. The combination of ZPCPs and WPM delayed the lipolysis during gastrointestinal digestion. Through controlling the composition of the complex interface, the free fatty acid (FFA) release rate of Pickering emulsions in the small intestinal phase was reduced from 15.64% to 9.03%. When ZPCPs were used as the inner layer and WPM as the outer layer and the mass ratio of ZPCPs to WPM was 4 : 1, the Pickering emulsion showed the best stability and ß-carotene bioaccessibility. The Pickering emulsion with particle-particle complex interfaces could be applied in foods and pharmaceuticals for the purpose of enhanced stability, delayed lipolysis or sustained nutrient release.

Zein Colloidal Particles and Cellulose Nanocrystals Synergistic Stabilization of Pickering Emulsions for Delivery of ß-Carotene.

In this study, we utilized different types of particles to stabilize ß-carotene-loaded Pickering emulsions: spherical hydrophobic zein colloidal particles (ZCPs) (517.3 nm) and rod-shaped hydrophilic cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) (115.2 nm). Either of the particles was incapable of stabilizing Pickering emulsions owing to their inappropriate wettability. When the mass ratio of ZCPs and CNCs was 1:4, the Pickering emulsion showed the best physical and photothermal stability. Compared to the ZCP-stabilized Pickering emulsion (9.29%), the retention rate of ß-carotene in the Pickering emulsion costabilized by ZCPs and CNCs was increased to 60.23% after 28 days of storage at 55 °C. Confocal microscopy and cryoscanning electron microscopy confirmed that different types of particles could form a multilayered structure or induce the formation of an interparticle network. Furthermore, the complexation of ZCPs and CNCs delayed the lipolysis of the emulsion during in vitro digestion. The free fatty acid (FFA) release rate of Pickering emulsions in the small intestinal phase was reduced from 19.46 to 8.73%. Accordingly, the bioaccessibility of ß-carotene in Pickering emulsions ranged from 9.14 to 27.25% through adjusting the mass ratio and addition sequence of distinct particles at the interface. The Pickering emulsion with the novel particle-particle complex interface was designed in foods and pharmaceuticals for purpose of enhanced stability, delayed lipolysis, or sustained nutrient release.

Identifying key priorities for research to protect the consumer with food hypersensitivity: A UK Food Standards Agency Priority Setting Exercise.

INTRODUCTION: Food hypersensitivity (FHS), including food allergy, coeliac disease and food intolerance, is a major public health issue. The Food Standards Agency (FSA), an independent UK Government department working to protect public health and consumers' wider interests in food, sought to identify research priorities in the area of FHS. METHODS: A priority setting exercise was undertaken, using a methodology adapted from the James Lind Alliance-the first such exercise with respect to food hypersensitivity. A UK-wide public consultation was held to identify unanswered research questions. After excluding diagnostics, desensitization treatment and other questions which were out of scope for FSA or where FSA was already commissioning research, 15 indicative questions were identified and prioritized by a range of stakeholders, representing food businesses, patient groups, health care and academia, local authorities and the FSA. RESULTS: 295 responses were received during the public consultation, which were categorized into 70 sub-questions and used to define 15 key evidence uncertainties ('indicative questions') for prioritization. Using the JLA prioritization framework, this resulted in 10 priority uncertainties in evidence, from which 16 research questions were developed. These could be summarized under the following 5 themes: communication of allergens both within the food supply chain and then to the end consumer (ensuring trust in allergen communication); the impact of socio-economic factors on consumers with FHS; drivers of severe reactions; mechanism(s) underlying loss of tolerance in FHS; and the risks posed by novel allergens/processing. DISCUSSION: In this first research prioritization exercise for food allergy and FHS, key priorities identified to protect the food-allergic public were strategies to help allergic consumers to make confident food choices, prevention of FHS and increasing understanding of socio-economic impacts. Diagnosis and treatment of FHS was not considered in this prioritization.

The bile salt content of human bile impacts on simulated intestinal proteolysis of ß-lactoglobulin.

The gastrointestinal hydrolysis of food proteins has been portrayed in scientific literature to predominantly depend on the activity and specificity of proteolytic enzymes. Human bile has not been considered to facilitate proteolysis in the small intestine, but rather to assist in intestinal lipolysis. However, human bile can potentially influence proteins that are largely resistant to gastric digestion, and which are mainly hydrolysed after they have been transferred to the small intestine. We used purified and food-grade bovine milk ß-lactoglobulin (ßLg) to assess the impact of bile salts (BS) on the in vitro gastrointestinal digestion of this protein. Quantitative analysis showed that the proteolysis rate increased significantly with increasing BS concentration. The effect was consistent regardless of whether individual BS or real human bile samples, varying in BS concentrations, were used. The total BS content of bile was more important than its BS composition in facilitating the proteolysis of ßlg. We also show that the impact of human bile observed during the digestion of purified ßLg and ßLg-rich whey protein isolate can be closely replicated by the use of individual BS mixed with phosphatidylcholine. This could validate simple BS/phosphatidylcholine mixtures as human-relevant substitutes of difficult-to-obtain human bile for in vitro proteolysis studies.

Structural design of zein-cellulose nanocrystals core-shell microparticles for delivery of curcumin.

The novel core-shell microparticles were fabricated to deliver curcumin by using hydrophobic zein microparticles as the core and hydrophilic cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) as the shell. Different concentrations (0.10-1.50%, w/v) of CNCs were utilized to regulate the microstructure, physicochemical stability, and in vitro digestion of the core-shell microparticles. The size of the microparticles ranged from 1017.3 to 3663.7 nm. Electrostatic attraction and hydrophobic interactions were responsible for the assembly of zein-CNCs core-shell microparticles. The microstructure of the microparticles was dependent on the CNCs level. The retention rate of curcumin in the core-shell microparticles was increased by 76.41% after UV radiation. Furthermore, the rise of CNCs level delayed the release of curcumin from the microparticles in gastrointestinal tract and reduced its bioaccessibility. The potential of utilizing hydrophilic nanoparticles was explored to stabilize hydrophobic microparticles through interparticle interactions, which was useful to develop the novel core-shell microparticles for the application in functional foods.