Impacts of metal mining on river systems: a global assessment.

An estimated 23 million people live on floodplains affected by potentially dangerous concentrations of toxic waste derived from past and present metal mining activity. We analyzed the global dimensions of this hazard, particularly in regard to lead, zinc, copper, and arsenic, using a georeferenced global database detailing all known metal mining sites and intact and failed tailings storage facilities. We then used process-based and empirically tested modeling to produce a global assessment of metal mining contamination in river systems and the numbers of human populations and livestock exposed. Worldwide, metal mines affect 479,200 kilometers of river channels and 164,000 square kilometers of floodplains. The number of people exposed to contamination sourced from long-term discharge of mining waste into rivers is almost 50 times greater than the number directly affected by tailings dam failures.

Incorporating hydrology into climate suitability models changes projections of malaria transmission in Africa.

Continental-scale models of malaria climate suitability typically couple well-established temperature-response models with basic estimates of vector habitat availability using rainfall as a proxy. Here we show that across continental Africa, the estimated geographic range of climatic suitability for malaria transmission is more sensitive to the precipitation threshold than the thermal response curve applied. To address this problem we use downscaled daily climate predictions from seven GCMs to run a continental-scale hydrological model for a process-based representation of mosquito breeding habitat availability. A more complex pattern of malaria suitability emerges as water is routed through drainage networks and river corridors serve as year-round transmission foci. The estimated hydro-climatically suitable area for stable malaria transmission is smaller than previous models suggest and shows only a very small increase in state-of-the-art future climate scenarios. However, bigger geographical shifts are observed than with most rainfall threshold models and the pattern of that shift is very different when using a hydrological model to estimate surface water availability for vector breeding.

A cloud based tool for knowledge exchange on local scale flood risk.

There is an emerging and urgent need for new approaches for the management of environmental challenges such as flood hazard in the broad context of sustainability. This requires a new way of working which bridges disciplines and organisations, and that breaks down science-culture boundaries. With this, there is growing recognition that the appropriate involvement of local communities in catchment management decisions can result in multiple benefits. However, new tools are required to connect organisations and communities. The growth of cloud based technologies offers a novel way to facilitate this process of exchange of information in environmental science and management; however, stakeholders need to be engaged with as part of the development process from the beginning rather than being presented with a final product at the end. Here we present the development of a pilot Local Environmental Virtual Observatory Flooding Tool. The aim was to develop a cloud based learning platform for stakeholders, bringing together fragmented data, models and visualisation tools that will enable these stakeholders to make scientifically informed environmental management decisions at the local scale. It has been developed by engaging with different stakeholder groups in three catchment case studies in the UK and a panel of national experts in relevant topic areas. However, these case study catchments are typical of many northern latitude catchments. The tool was designed to communicate flood risk in locally impacted communities whilst engaging with landowners/farmers about the risk of runoff from the farmed landscape. It has been developed iteratively to reflect the needs, interests and capabilities of a wide range of stakeholders. The pilot tool combines cloud based services, local catchment datasets, a hydrological model and bespoke visualisation tools to explore real time hydrometric data and the impact of flood risk caused by future land use changes. The novel aspects of the pilot tool are; the co-evolution of tools on a cloud based platform with stakeholders, policy and scientists; encouraging different science disciplines to work together; a wealth of information that is accessible and understandable to a range of stakeholders; and provides a framework for how to approach the development of such a cloud based tool in the future. Above all, stakeholders saw the tool and the potential of cloud technologies as an effective means to taking a whole systems approach to solving environmental issues. This sense of community ownership is essential in order to facilitate future appropriate and acceptable land use management decisions to be co-developed by local catchment communities. The development processes and the resulting pilot tool could be applied to local catchments globally to facilitate bottom up catchment management approaches.

Flood-related contamination in catchments affected by historical metal mining: an unexpected and emerging hazard of climate change.

Floods in catchments affected by historical metal mining result in the remobilisation of large quantities of contaminated sediment from floodplain soils and old mine workings. This poses a significant threat to agricultural production and is preventing many European river catchments achieving a 'good chemical and ecological status', as demanded by the Water Framework Directive. Analysis of overbank sediment following widespread flooding in west Wales in June 2012 showed that flood sediments were contaminated above guideline pollution thresholds, in some samples by a factor of 82. Most significantly, silage produced from flood affected fields was found to contain up to 1900 mg kg(-1) of sediment associated Pb, which caused cattle poisoning and mortality. As a consequence of climate related increases in flooding this problem is likely to continue and intensify. Management of contaminated catchments requires a geomorphological approach to understand the spatial and temporal cycling of metals through the fluvial system.

Potentially harmful elements (PHEs) in scalp hair, soil and metallurgical wastes in Mitrovica, Kosovo: the role of oral bioaccessibility and mineralogy in human PHE exposure.

Internationally publicized impacts upon human health associated with potentially harmful element (PHE) exposure have been reported amongst internally displaced populations (IDPs) in Mitrovica, Kosovo, following the Kosovan War. Particular concern has surrounded the exposure to Pb indicated by the presence of highly elevated concentrations of Pb in blood and hair samples. This study utilizes a physiologically-based in-vitro extraction method to assess the bioaccessibility of PHEs in surface soils and metallurgical waste in Mitrovica and assesses the potential daily intake of soil-bound PHEs. Maximum As (210mgkg(-1)), Cd (38mgkg(-1)), Cu (410mgkg(-1)), Pb (18790mgkg(-1)) and Zn (8500mgkg(-1)) concentrations in surface soils (0-10cm) are elevated above guideline values. Samples with high PHE concentrations (e.g. As >1000mgkg(-1); Pb >1500mgkg(-1)) exhibit a wide range of bioaccessibilities (5.40 - 92.20% in the gastric (G) phase and 10.00 - 55.80% in the gastric-intestinal (G-I) phase). Samples associated with lower bioaccessibilities typically contain a number of XRD-identifiable primary and secondary mineral phases, particularly As- and Pb-bearing arsenian pyrite, beudantite, galena and cerrusite. Quantification of the potential human exposure risk associated with the ingestion of soil-associated PHEs indicates that on average, 0.01µg Cd kg(-1) BW d(-1), 0.16µg Cu kg(-1) BW d(--1), 0.12µg As kg(-1) BW d(-1), 7.81µg Pb kg(-1) BW d(-1), and 2.68µg Zn kg(-1) BW d(-1) could be bioaccessible following ingestion of PHE-rich soils in the Mitrovica region, with Pb, and to a lesser extent As, indicating the likely possibility of local populations exceeding the recommended tolerable daily intake. Lead present within surface soils of the area could indeed have contributed to the human Pb burden due to the high bioaccessibility of Pb present within these soils (13.40 - 92.20% in the gastric phase). Data for Pb levels in scalp hair (≤120µgg(-1)) and blood (≥650µgdL(-1); WHO, 2004) for children that have lived within IDP camps in Mitrovica indicate significant Pb uptake has indeed taken place. The highly bioaccessible nature of soil-associated PHEs in this study highlights the need for appropriate environmental management approaches that limit the exposure of local populations to these contaminated soils.

The fluvial record of climate change.

Fluvial landforms and sediments can be used to reconstruct past hydrological conditions over different time scales once allowance has been made for tectonic, base-level and human complications. Field stratigraphic evidence is explored here at three time scales: the later Pleistocene, the Holocene, and the historical and instrumental period. New data from a range of field studies demonstrate that Croll-Milankovitch forcing, Dansgaard-Oeschger and Heinrich events, enhanced monsoon circulation, millennial- to centennial-scale climate variability within the Holocene (probably associated with solar forcing and deep ocean circulation) and flood-event variability in recent centuries can all be discerned in the fluvial record. Although very significant advances have been made in river system and climate change research in recent years, the potential of fluvial palaeohydrology has yet to be fully realized, to the detriment of climatology, public health, resource management and river engineering.

Fluvial-controlled metal and As mobilisation, dispersal and storage in the Río Guadiamar, SW Spain and its implications for long-term contaminant fluxes to the Doñana wetlands.

Flood-related contaminant (As, Cd, Cu, Pb, Zn) remobilisation, dispersal and storage in the Río Guadiamar was investigated following the 1998 Aznalcóllar tailings dam failure, along with records of floodplain contaminant loading in the decades preceding the tailings release. A series of post-spill floods resulted in the transfer of vast quantities of sediment-borne heavy metals and As towards the lower reaches of the Guadiamar and the borders of the Doñana National Park, but over-bank flood deposits collected between May 1999 and March 2002 show a systematic fall in contaminant concentrations following successive flood events. Geochemical improvements can largely be attributed to sediment mixing of contaminated and 'clean' material derived from calcareous catchment soils. Longer-term contaminant patterns in floodplain sediment cores show higher heavy metal and As loading rates operating before the opening of the Aznalcóllar pit in 1979 and in some instances pre-dating 1954. The remobilization and dispersal of historically contaminated alluvium in the upper Guadiamar means that the post-clean-up contaminant signature in flood-transported sediments largely reflects chronic, long-term metal mining in the Guadiamar catchment, rather than the acute effects of the Aznalcóllar spill. Generally results present a cautiously optimistic prognosis for the sensitive wetlands of Doñana, but high dissolved (aqueous) heavy metal (especially Cu and Zn) concentrations in the upper Guadiamar emphasise the need for addressing contaminant 'hotspots' in the region and for maintaining flow requirements for aquatic ecosystems. This study illustrates the importance of establishing antecedent geomorphological-geochemical conditions in a spill-impacted river system, both for assessing the impacts of a single catastrophic pollution event and for developing appropriate strategies for remediation.

Heavy metal contamination of water, soil and produce within riverine communities of the Río Pilcomayo basin, Bolivia.

The Río Pilcomayo heads on the Cerro Rico de Potosí precious metal-polymetallic tin deposits of Southern Bolivia. Mining of the Potosí deposits began in 1545 and has led to the severe contamination of the Pilcomayo's water and sediments for at least 200 km downstream of the mines. This investigation addresses the potential human health affects of metal and As contamination on four communities located along the upper Río Pilcomayo by examining the potential significance of human exposure pathways associated with soils, crops and water (including river, irrigation and drinking water supplies). The most significantly contaminated agricultural soils occur upstream at Mondragón where Cd, Pb and Zn concentrations exceed recommended guideline values for agricultural use. Further downstream the degree of contamination decreases, and metal concentrations are below Dutch, German and Canadian guideline values. Metal and As concentrations in agricultural products from the four communities were generally below existing guidelines for heavy metal content in commercially-sold vegetables. Thus, the consumption of contaminated produce does not appear to represent a significant exposure pathway. A possible exception is Pb in carrots, lettuce and beetroots from Sotomayor and Tuero Chico; 37% and 55% of the samples, respectively, exceeded recommended guidelines. Most communities obtain drinking water from sources other than the Río Pilcomayo. In general, dissolved concentrations of metals and As in drinking water from the four studied communities are below the WHO guideline values with the exception of Sb, which was high at Tasapampa. The inadvertent ingestion of contaminated water from irrigation canals and the Río Pilcomayo represents a potential exposure pathway, but its significance is thought to be minimal. Given the degree of soil contamination in the area, perhaps the most significant exposure pathway is the ingestion of contaminated soil particles, particularly particles attached to, and consumed with vegetables. The risks associated with this pathway can be reduced by thoroughly washing or peeling the vegetables prior to consumption. Other exposure pathways that are currently under investigation include the consumption of contaminated meat from livestock and poultry, which drink polluted waters and the ingestion of contaminated wind-blown dust.