ABSTRACT
PURPOSE OF REVIEW: We present the key advances in the infections that clinicians conventionally associate with atypical pneumonia: legionellosis, Mycoplasma pneumonia, Chlamydophila species pneumonia and Q fever. RECENT FINDINGS: There have been significant developments in molecular diagnosis to include Mycoplasma pneumoniae and Chlamydophila pneumoniae in multiplex PCR of respiratory specimens. There are diagnostic challenges in distinguishing carriage from infection, which is recognized in C. pneumoniae and now also evident in M. pneumoniae. Macrolide-resistant M. pneumoniae has emerged in Asia. There are new antimicrobials on the horizon in the ketolide class with activity against typical and atypical pathogens and useful empirical agents. SUMMARY: There are few advances in our knowledge of the epidemiology of atypical pathogens or the effectiveness of antimicrobial therapy--empirical or pathogen specific. However, if molecular testing becomes widely implemented, there will be an increased understanding of the epidemiology and presentation of atypical pneumonia and a shift to more targeted antimicrobial therapy.
Subject(s)
Chlamydophila Infections/diagnosis , Community-Acquired Infections/diagnosis , Legionellosis/diagnosis , Pneumonia, Bacterial/diagnosis , Pneumonia, Mycoplasma/diagnosis , Psittacosis/diagnosis , Q Fever/diagnosis , Anti-Bacterial Agents/therapeutic use , Antibodies, Bacterial/isolation & purification , Chlamydophila Infections/drug therapy , Chlamydophila Infections/transmission , Chlamydophila pneumoniae/isolation & purification , Chlamydophila psittaci/isolation & purification , Community-Acquired Infections/drug therapy , Community-Acquired Infections/transmission , Coxiella burnetii/isolation & purification , Female , Humans , Legionellosis/drug therapy , Legionellosis/transmission , Male , Mycoplasma pneumoniae/isolation & purification , Nucleic Acid Amplification Techniques/methods , Pneumonia, Bacterial/drug therapy , Pneumonia, Bacterial/transmission , Pneumonia, Mycoplasma/drug therapy , Pneumonia, Mycoplasma/transmission , Psittacosis/drug therapy , Psittacosis/transmission , Q Fever/drug therapy , Q Fever/transmissionABSTRACT
BACKGROUND: Empyema is an increasingly frequent clinical problem worldwide, and has substantial morbidity and mortality. Our objectives were to identify the clinical, surgical and microbiological features, and management outcomes, of empyema. METHODS: A retrospective observational study over 12 years (1999-2010) was carried out at The Heart Hospital, London, United Kingdom. Patients with empyema were identified by screening the hospital electronic 'Clinical Data Repository'. Demographics, clinical and microbiological characteristics, underlying risk factors, peri-operative blood tests, treatment and outcomes were identified. Univariable and multivariable statistical analyses were performed. RESULTS: Patients (nâ=â406) were predominantly male (74.1%); median ageâ=â53 years (IQRâ=â37-69). Most empyema were community-acquired (87.4%) and right-sided (57.4%). Microbiological diagnosis was obtained in 229 (56.4%) patients, and included streptococci (16.3%), staphylococci (15.5%), gram-negative organisms (8.9%), anaerobes (5.7%), pseudomonads (4.4%) and mycobacteria (9.1%); 8.4% were polymicrobial. Most (68%) cases were managed by open thoracotomy and decortication. Video-assisted thoracoscopic surgery (VATS) reduced hospitalisation from 10 to seven days (Pâ=â0.0005). All-cause complication rate was 25.1%, and 28 day mortality 5.7%. Predictors of early mortality included: older age (Pâ=â0.006), major co-morbidity (Pâ=â0.01), malnutrition (Pâ=â0.001), elevated red cell distribution width (RDW, P<0.001) and serum alkaline phosphatase (Pâ=â0.004), and reduced serum albumin (Pâ=â0.01) and haemoglobin (Pâ=â0.04). CONCLUSIONS: Empyema remains an important cause of morbidity and hospital admissions. Microbiological diagnosis was only achieved in just over 50% of cases, and tuberculosis is a notable causative organism. Treatment of empyema with VATS may reduce duration of hospital stay. Raised RDW appears to associate with early mortality.
