A 3D high resolution MRI method for the visualization of cardiac fibro-fatty infiltrations.

Modifications of the myocardial architecture can cause abnormal electrical activity of the heart. Fibro-fatty infiltrations have been implicated in various cardiac pathologies associated with arrhythmias and sudden cardiac death, such as arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy (ARVC). Here, we report the development of an MRI protocol to observe these modifications at 9.4 T. Two fixed ex vivo human hearts, one healthy and one ARVC, were imaged with an Iterative decomposition with echo asymmetry and least-square estimations (IDEAL) and a magnetization transfer (MT) 3D sequences. The resulting fat fraction and MT ratio (MTR) were analyzed and compared to histological analysis of the three regions ("ARVC triangle") primarily involved in ARVC structural remodeling. In the ARVC heart, high fat content was observed in the "ARVC triangle" and the superimposition of the MTR and fat fraction allowed the identification of fibrotic regions in areas without the presence of fat. The healthy heart exhibited twice less fat than the ARVC heart (31.9%, 28.7% and 1.3% of fat in the same regions, respectively). Localization of fat and fibrosis were confirmed by means of histology. This non-destructive approach allows the investigation of structural remodeling in human pathologies where fibrosis and/or fatty tissue infiltrations are expected to occur.

Theoretical and experimental study of ON-Resonance Saturation, an MRI sequence for positive contrast with superparamagnetic nanoparticles.

Superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPM particles) are widely used in MRI as negative contrast agents. Their detection is sometimes difficult because negative contrast can be caused by different artifacts. To overcome this problem, MRI protocols achieving positive contrast specific to SPM particles were developed such as the ON-Resonance Saturation (ONRS) sequence. The aim of the present work is to achieve a bottom-up study of the ONRS sequence by an understanding of the physical mechanisms leading to positive contrast. A complete theoretical modeling, a novel numerical simulation approach and experiments on agarose gel phantoms on a 11.7 T MRI system were carried out for this purpose. The influence of the particle properties and concentration - as well as the effect of the sequence parameters on the contrast - were investigated. It was observed that theory and experiments were in strong agreement. The tools developed in this work allowed to predict the parameters leading to the maximum contrast. For example, particles presenting a low transverse relaxivity can provide an interesting positive contrast after optimization of their concentration in the sample.

Dynamic contrast-enhanced MRI in mouse tumors at 11.7 T: comparison of three contrast agents with different molecular weights to assess the early effects of combretastatin A4.

Dynamic contrast-enhanced (DCE)-MRI is useful to assess the early effects of drugs acting on tumor vasculature, namely anti-angiogenic and vascular disrupting agents. Ultra-high-field MRI allows higher-resolution scanning for DCE-MRI while maintaining an adequate signal-to-noise ratio. However, increases in susceptibility effects, combined with decreases in longitudinal relaxivity of gadolinium-based contrast agents (GdCAs), make DCE-MRI more challenging at high field. The aim of this work was to explore the feasibility of using DCE-MRI at 11.7 T to assess the tumor hemodynamics of mice. Three GdCAs possessing different molecular weights (gadoterate: 560 Da, 0.29 mmol Gd/kg; p846: 3.5 kDa, 0.10 mmol Gd/kg; and p792: 6.47 kDa, 0.15 mmol Gd/kg) were compared to see the influence of the molecular weight in the highlight of the biologic effects induced by combretastatin A4 (CA4). Mice bearing transplantable liver tumor (TLT) hepatocarcinoma were divided into two groups (n = 5-6 per group and per GdCA): a treated group receiving 100 mg/kg CA4, and a control group receiving vehicle. The mice were imaged at 11.7 T with a T1 -weighted FLASH sequence 2 h after the treatment. Individual arterial input functions (AIFs) were computed using phase imaging. These AIFs were used in the Extended Tofts Model to determine K(trans) and vp values. A separate immunohistochemistry study was performed to assess the vascular perfusion and the vascular density. Phase imaging was used successfully to measure the AIF for the three GdCAs. In control groups, an inverse relationship between the molecular weight of the GdCA and K(trans) and vp values was observed. K(trans) was significantly decreased in the treated group compared with the control group for each GdCA. DCE-MRI at 11.7 T is feasible to assess tumor hemodynamics in mice. With K(trans) , the three GdCAs were able to track the early vascular effects induced by CA4 treatment.

Influence of paramagnetic melanin on the MRI contrast in melanoma: a combined high-field (11.7 T) MRI and EPR study.

Melanoma is the most dangerous form of skin cancer and its incidence is rising each year. Because the current methods of diagnosis based on the visual aspect of the tumor show limitations, several new techniques are emerging to help in this diagnosis, amongst which are magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR). The origin of the typical contrast pattern observable in melanoma in T1 - and T2 -weighted images remains to be elucidated and is a source of controversy. In addition, melanin could create sufficient magnetic inhomogeneities to allow its visualization on T2 *-weighted images using high-field MRI. In order to elucidate the possible role of melanin in the MRI contrast of melanoma, the present study was designed to correlate the paramagnetic content in melanin pigment to the contrast on T1 -, T2 - and T2 *-weighted images. MR images were obtained in vivo at 11.7 T using four types of experimental tumors with different pigmentations (B16, HBL, LND1 melanomas and KHT sarcomas). The paramagnetic content in melanin pigment was measured by EPR. No significant correlation was observed between the content in melanin and the relaxation times T1 , T2 and T2 *, emphasizing that the presence of pigment alone has negligible effect on the MRI contrast.

Dynamic contrast-enhanced MRI in mice at high field: estimation of the arterial input function can be achieved by phase imaging.

PURPOSE: Quantitative dynamic contrast-enhanced MRI requires an accurate arterial input function (AIF). At high field, increased susceptibility effects and decreased longitudinal relaxivity of contrast agents lead to predominant T2* effects in blood vessels, producing a dip in signal during passage of the contrast agent bolus. This study determined phase-derived AIFs in mice at 11.7 T. METHODS: AIFs were measured in aorta/vena cava for five FBV/N mice and in iliac arteries/veins for five NMRI mice with a fast low angle shot sequence, simultaneously with tumor imaging (temporal resolution: 1.19 s). Gadoterate was injected into the tail vein as a bolus (0.286 mmol Gd/kg). An in vitro study was also performed to calculate the relationship between ΔΦ and gadolinium concentration. RESULTS: The phantom system confirmed the linear relationship between measured ΔΦ and gadolinium concentration. In vivo, a dip in arterial magnitude signal made it impossible to quantify the AIF. With phase imaging, a clear quantifiable bolus peak was obtained; peak measured concentration in plasma was 4.9 ± 0.9 mM for FBV/N mice and 8.0 ± 0.6 mM for NMRI mice, close to the expected concentration of 6.8 mM. CONCLUSION: Phase imaging seems to be an appropriate means to measure the AIF of mice at high field.

Electron paramagnetic resonance as a sensitive tool to assess the iron oxide content in cells for MRI cell labeling studies.

MRI cell tracking is a promising technique to track various cell types (stem cells, tumor cells, etc.) in living animals. Usually, cells are incubated with iron oxides (T(2) contrast agent) in order to take up the particles before being injected in vivo. Iron oxide quantification is important in such studies for validating the labeling protocols and assessing the dilution of the particles with cell proliferation. We here propose to implement electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) as a very sensitive method to quantify iron oxide concentration in cells. Iron oxide particles exhibit a unique EPR spectrum, which directly reflects the number of particles in a sample. In order to compare EPR with existing methods (Perls's Prussian blue reaction, ICP-MS and fluorimetry), we labeled tumor cells (melanoma and renal adenocarcinoma cell lines) and fibroblasts with fluorescent iron oxide particles, and determined the limits of detection of the different techniques. We show that EPR is a very sensitive technique and is specific for iron oxide quantification as measurements are not affected by endogenous iron. As a consequence, EPR is well adapted to perform ex vivo analysis of tissues after cell tracking experiments in order to confirm MRI results.

Multimodal assessment of early tumor response to chemotherapy: comparison between diffusion-weighted MRI, 1H-MR spectroscopy of choline and USPIO particles targeted at cell death.

The aim of this study was to determine the value of different magnetic resonance (MR) protocols to assess early tumor response to chemotherapy. We used a murine tumor model (TLT) presenting different degrees of response to three different cytotoxic agents. As shown in survival curves, cyclophosphamide (CP) was the most efficient drug followed by 5-fluorouracil (5-FU), whereas the etoposide treatment had little impact on TLT tumors. Three different MR protocols were used at 9.4 Tesla 24 h post-treatment: diffusion-weighted (DW)-MRI, choline measurement by (1) H MRS, and contrast-enhanced MRI using ultrasmall iron oxide nanoparticles (USPIO) targeted at phosphatidylserine. Accumulation of contrast agent in apoptotic tumors was monitored by T(2) -weighted images and quantified by EPR spectroscopy. Necrosis and apoptosis were assessed by histology. Large variations were observed in the measurement of choline peak areas and could not be directly correlated to tumor response. Although the targeted USPIO particles were able to significantly differentiate between the efficiency of each cytotoxic agent and best correlated with survival endpoint, they present the main disadvantage of non-specific tumor accumulation, which could be problematic when transferring the method to the clinic. DW-MRI presents a better compromise by combining longitudinal studies with a high dynamic range; however, DW-MRI was unable to show any significant effect for 5-FU. This study illustrates the need for multimodal imaging in assessing tumor response to treatment to compensate for individual limitations.

Noninvasive mapping of spontaneous fluctuations in tumor oxygenation using 19F MRI.

PURPOSE: Acute hypoxia (transient cycles of hypoxia-reoxygenation) is known to occur in solid tumors and may be a poorly appreciated therapeutic problem as it can be associated with resistance to radiation therapy, impaired delivery of chemotherapeutic agents, or metastasis development. The objective of the present study was to use MR 19F relaxometry maps to analyze the spontaneous fluctuations of partial pressure of oxygen (pO2) over time in experimental tumors. METHODS: The pO2 maps were generated after direct intratumoral administration of a fluorine compound (hexafluorobenzene) whose relaxation rate (1/T1) is proportional to the % O2. The authors used a SNAP inversion-recovery sequence at 4.7 T to acquire parametric images of the T1 relaxation time with a high spatial and temporal resolution. Homemade routines were developed to perform regions of interest analysis, as well as pixel by pixel analysis of pO2 over time. RESULTS: The authors were able to quantify and probe the heterogeneity of spontaneous fluctuations in tumor pO2: (i) Spontaneous fluctuations in pO2 occurred regardless of the basal oxygenation state (i.e., both in oxygenated and in hypoxic regions) and (ii) spontaneous fluctuations occurred at a rate of 1 cycle/12-47 min. For validation, the analysis was performed in dead mice for which acute changes did not occur. The authors thereby demonstrated that 19F MRI technique is sensitive to acute change in pO2 in tumors. CONCLUSIONS: This is the first approach that allows quantitative minimally invasive measurement of the spontaneous fluctuations of tumor oxygenation using a look-locker approach (e.g., SNAP IR). This approach could be an important tool to characterize the phenomenon of tumor acute hypoxia, to understand its physiopathology, and to improve therapies.

Iron oxide particles covered with hexapeptides targeted at phosphatidylserine as MR biomarkers of tumor cell death.

The aim of the study was to evaluate the ability of a new MR contrast agent to detect cell death as a biomarker of the efficacy of anti-cancer treatment. The phosphatidylserine-targeted hexapeptide (E3) was coupled to pegylated ultrasmall iron oxide nanoparticles (USPIO) that can be detected by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and by electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR). USPIO binding to staurosporine-treated TLT (transplantable liver tumor) cells, evaluated by X-Band EPR, indicated twice as much binding of USPIO grafted with the E3 peptide, compared with USPIO grafted with a scrambled peptide or ungrafted USPIO. In vivo experiments were carried out using TLT cells implanted intramuscularly into NMRI mice, and tumor cell death was induced by irradiation. After intravenous injection of the different types of USPIO, the accumulation of contrast agent was evaluated ex vivo by X-band EPR, in vivo by L-band EPR and by T(2)-weighted MRI. In irradiated tumors there was greater accumulation of the targeted USPIO particles compared with control particles or compared with the targeted particles in untreated tissues. In conclusion, phosphatidylserine-targeting of USPIO particles can detect dying tissues. This molecular targeted system should be evaluated further as a potential biomarker of tumor response to treatment.