Retrospective Cohort Study on the Impact of Travel Distance on Late-Stage Oral Cancer Treatment and Outcomes: An NCDB Analysis.

The National Comprehensive Cancer Network guidelines provide evidence-based consensus for optimal individual site- and stage-specific treatments. This is a cohort study of 11,121 late-stage oral cancer patients in the National Cancer Database from 2010 to 2016. We hypothesized that patient travel distance may affect treatment choices and impact outcome. We split travel distance (miles) into quartiles (D1-4) and assessed treatment choices, type of facility, and survival outcome in relation to distance traveled. Univariate and multivariate analyses addressed contributions of specific variables. White patients were most likely to travel farthest (D4) for treatment compared to Black patients (D1). Urban area patients traveled shorter distances than those from rural areas. Greater travel distance was associated with patients undergoing surgical-based therapies and treatment at academic centers. Patients in D1 had the lowest median survival of all distance quartiles. Surgery-based multimodality treatment (surgery and radiation) had a median survival significantly greater than for non-surgical therapy. Several factors including travel distance and treatment facility were associated with survival outcomes for late-stage oral cavity cancers. Consideration of these factors may help improve the outcome for this patient population.

Rapid and Label-Free Histopathology of Oral Lesions Using Deep Learning Applied to Optical and Infrared Spectroscopic Imaging Data.

Oral potentially malignant disorders (OPMDs) are precursors to over 80% of oral cancers. Hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) staining, followed by pathologist interpretation of tissue and cellular morphology, is the current gold standard for diagnosis. However, this method is qualitative, can result in errors during the multi-step diagnostic process, and results may have significant inter-observer variability. Chemical imaging (CI) offers a promising alternative, wherein label-free imaging is used to record both the morphology and the composition of tissue and artificial intelligence (AI) is used to objectively assign histologic information. Here, we employ quantum cascade laser (QCL)-based discrete frequency infrared (DFIR) chemical imaging to record data from oral tissues. In this proof-of-concept study, we focused on achieving tissue segmentation into three classes (connective tissue, dysplastic epithelium, and normal epithelium) using a convolutional neural network (CNN) applied to three bands of label-free DFIR data with paired darkfield visible imaging. Using pathologist-annotated H&E images as the ground truth, we demonstrate results that are 94.5% accurate with the ground truth using combined information from IR and darkfield microscopy in a deep learning framework. This chemical-imaging-based workflow for OPMD classification has the potential to enhance the efficiency and accuracy of clinical oral precancer diagnosis.

Seroma After Breast Reconstruction With Tissue Expanders: Outcomes and Management.

BACKGROUND: Seroma is a relatively common complication after breast reconstruction with tissue expanders. The main risk in the presence of seroma is development of periprosthetic infection, which can lead to implant loss. Our goals were to identify risk factors for seroma, and to describe our protocol for managing fluid accumulation. PATIENTS AND METHODS: An IRB approved breast reconstruction database was reviewed to identify patients who underwent tissue expander reconstruction. Patient characteristics, details of surgery, outcomes and treatment were recorded. RESULTS: Two hundred nineteen tissue expander reconstructions were performed in 138 patients. Twenty-eight reconstructions developed seroma (12.8%), and 75 were identified to have prolonged drains (34.2%). Seroma was more common in patients with lymph node surgery ( P = 0.043), delayed reconstruction ( P = 0.049), and prepectoral reconstruction ( P = 0.002). Seroma and/or prolonged drains were more commonly noted in patients with higher body mass index ( P = 0.044) and larger breast size ( P = 0.001). Aspiration was the most common intervention (85.7%), which was performed in the clinic utilizing the expander port site. There was no difference in infection or explantation rate between seroma and no-seroma patients ( P = 0.546 and 0.167), whereas patients with any fluid concern (seroma and/or prolonged drains) were more prone to developing infection and undergoing explantation ( P = 0.041 and P < 0.005). CONCLUSION: We recommend that prolonged drain placement longer than 3 weeks should be avoided, and patients should be screened for fluid accumulation after drain removal. Serial aspiration via expander port site and continuation of expansion provide a safe and effective method to manage seromas to avoid infection and expander loss.

T-Cell Infiltration and Immune Checkpoint Expression Increase in Oral Cavity Premalignant and Malignant Disorders.

The immune cell niche associated with oral dysplastic lesion progression to carcinoma is poorly understood. We identified T regulatory cells (Treg), CD8+ effector T cells (Teff) and immune checkpoint molecules across oral dysplastic stages of oral potentially malignant disorders (OPMD). OPMD and oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) tissue sections (N = 270) were analyzed by immunohistochemistry for Treg (CD4, CD25 and FoxP3), Teff (CD8) and immune checkpoint molecules (PD-1 and PD-L1). The Treg marker staining intensity correlated significantly (p < 0.01) with presence of higher dysplasia grade and invasive cancer. These data suggest that Treg infiltration is relatively early in dysplasia and may be associated with disease progression. The presence of CD8+ effector T cells and the immune checkpoint markers PD-1 and PD-L1 were also associated with oral cancer progression (p < 0.01). These observations indicate the induction of an adaptive immune response with similar Treg and Teff recruitment timing and, potentially, the early induction of exhaustion. FoxP3 and PD-L1 levels were closely correlated with CD8 levels (p < 0.01). These data indicate the presence of reinforcing mechanisms contributing to the immune suppressive niche in high-risk OPMD and in OSCC. The presence of an adaptive immune response and T-cell exhaustion suggest that an effective immune response may be reactivated with targeted interventions coupled with immune checkpoint inhibition.

VSSP abrogates murine ovarian tumor-associated myeloid cell-driven immune suppression and induces M1 polarization in tumor-associated macrophages from ovarian cancer patients.

The ovarian tumor microenvironment (TME) is characterized by the accumulation of immunosuppressive tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) and granulocytic cells. Very small size particles (VSSP), comprised of the ganglioside NAcGM3 and Neisseria meningitidis derived outer membrane vesicles, is being developed as a nanoparticulated modulator of innate immunity. Prior studies have shown that VSSP enhanced antigen-specific cytotoxic T cell responses and reduced the suppressive phenotype of splenic granulocytic cells in tumor-bearing mice. Here, we hypothesized that intraperitoneal VSSP would modify myeloid cell accumulation and phenotypes in the ovarian TME and abrogate suppressor function of TAMs and tumor-associated granulocytic cells. In the ID8 syngeneic model of epithelial ovarian cancer, VSSP reduced peritoneal TAMs and induced M1-like polarization in TAMs. In addition, VSSP stimulated peritoneal inflammation characterized by increased granulocytes and monocytes, including inflammatory monocytic cells. VSSP treatment resulted in peritoneal TAMs and granulocytic cells being less suppressive of ex vivo stimulated CD8+ T cell responses. VSSP alone and combined with anti-PD-1 modestly but significantly prolonged survival in tumor-bearing mice. In addition, ex vivo treatment with VSSP induced M1-like polarization in TAMs from patients with metastatic ovarian cancer and variably abrogated their suppressor phenotype. VSSP treatment also partially abrogated the induction of suppressor function in healthy donor neutrophils exposed to ascites supernatants from patients with ovarian cancer. Together, these results point to VSSP reprogramming myeloid responses resulting in abrogation of suppressive pathways and raise the potential for administration of VSSP into the TME to enhance anti-tumor immunity.

Broad-Spectrum Antibiotics for Breast Expander/Implant Infection: Treatment-Related Adverse Events and Outcomes.

BACKGROUND: Despite best practices, infection remains the most common complication after breast reconstruction with expanders and implants, ranging from 2% to 29%. Empiric broad-spectrum antibiotics are frequently used in nonsurgical treatment of implant-associated infections in an effort to salvage the reconstruction. Pitfalls of antibiotherapy include adverse events, vascular access site complications, and drug resistance. Our goals were to describe management of implant infections with broad-spectrum antibiotics, review treatment related adverse events, and report on outcomes of therapy. PATIENTS AND METHODS: A retrospective review was carried out to identify patients who were treated with intravenous (IV) antibiotics for periprosthetic infection. Patient characteristics, surgical details, and antibiotic therapy-related adverse events were collected. Eventual outcome related to expander/implant salvage was noted. RESULTS: A total of 101 patients (111 treatment episodes) were identified. Mean duration of antibiotic treatment was 18 days (range, 1-40 days). The most commonly used parenteral treatment was a combination of daptomycin with piperacillin-tazobactam (65%) or an alternative agent (16%). Fifty-nine percent of treatment episodes resulted in salvage of the expander or implant. Thirty-five percent treatment episodes were associated with 1 or more adverse events: diarrhea (12.6%), rash (10%), vaginal candidiasis (3.6%), agranulocytosis/neutropenic fever (3.6%), nausea (3.6%), urinary complaint (0.9%), myositis (0.9%), headache (0.9%), vascular line occlusion (1.8%), deep vein thrombosis (1.8%), and finger numbness (0.9%). No patients developed Clostridium difficile colitis. Five episodes (4%) needed discontinuation of antibiotics because of severe adverse events. The prosthesis was explanted in 3 of the cases of discontinued treatment. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings show favorable outcomes and well-tolerated adverse effects with broad-spectrum parenteral antibiotherapy for periprosthetic infection. However, every effort should be made to deescalate therapy by narrowing the spectrum or limiting the duration, to minimize adverse events and development of bacterial resistance. Treating surgeons need to carefully weigh benefits of therapy and be aware of potential complications that might necessitate discontinuation of treatment.

MKP-1 is required to limit myeloid-cell mediated oral squamous cell carcinoma progression and regional extension.

Mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) require MAPK phosphatases (MKPs) for deactivation of MAPK intracellular signaling. MKP-1 (encoded by Dusp1) is a key negative regulator of MAPKs and prior reports have indicated that MKP-1 regulates oral cancer-associated inflammation and leukocyte infiltration. OBJECTIVE: To determine the significance of myeloid-based expression of MKP-1 in oral cancer. METHODS: The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) was used to address DUSP1 expression in oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC). Syngeneic and carcinogen-induced mouse models using global and myeloid-specific Dusp-1 deficient mice with immunophenotypic, histologic, and transcriptomic analyses and in vitro migration assays. RESULTS: Data from TCGA indicates the DUSP1 expression is inversely related to oral cancer burden and nodal involvement. Using murine models of OSCC, the role of MKP-1 signaling in tumor associated macrophages (TAMs) was assessed. Dusp1-deficient mice had increased tumor burden and TAM infiltrate with increased M2 macrophage polarization. Transcriptomic signatures of TAMs from Dusp1-deficent mice indicated a pro-metastatic phenotype as well as concomitant differences in myeloid-associated genes, cytokine/chemokine signaling, and Notch signaling consistent with tumor progression. In vitro and in vivo assays revealed mouse OSCC cells had a higher migration rate using TAM cell-free supernatant from Dusp1 deficiency mice compared to controls with enhanced regional cervical lymph node metastasis, respectively. To validate TAM studies using implantable mouse models, an OSCC progression model with conditional myeloid-specific Dusp-1 deficient mice demonstrated enhanced OSCC disease progression, characterized by advanced onset, histological stage, and tumor burden. CONCLUSION: Myeloid-based Dusp1-deficiency increases OSCC burden and metastasis through alteration in TAM recruitment, gene profile, and polarity suggesting that MKP-1 could be a viable target to reprogram TAM to limit local/regional OSCC extension.

The Extent of Neck Dissection Among Patients Who Receive Adjuvant Radiotherapy for HNSCC and Its Effect on Disease-Specific and Overall Survival.

The study objective was to assess if the extent of neck dissection among patients who receive adjuvant radiotherapy affects regional recurrence and survival. This was a retrospective study of patients who had clinical metastatic mucosal primary squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) to cervical lymph nodes done at Roswell Park Comprehensive Cancer Center, Buffalo, New York from 2004 to 2015. Patients with previous radiotherapy and/or chemotherapy were excluded. All patients had surgery to the primary tumor and the neck followed by adjuvant (chemo) radiation. Patients have been divided into 2 groups according to type of neck dissection as either selective neck dissection (SND) or comprehensive neck dissection (CND). The extent of neck dissection was determined by surgeon preference. All patients received postoperative radiotherapy to the primary tumor bed and to the neck with or without chemotherapy. Main outcomes were measured in regional recurrence and overall survival. In our study, 74 patients were included. Among the 2 groups of patients, 3-year outcomes for regional recurrence occurred in 4 (7.1%) of 56 patients in the SND group and 2 (11.1%) of 18 patients in the CND group. Overall survival was 29 (51.8%) of 56 patients in the SND group and 11 (61.1%) of 18 patients in the CND group ( P = .497). Among patients who died in each cohort, disease-specific death was 20 (74.1%) of 27 patients in the SND group and 5 (71.4%) of 7 patients in the CND group ( P = .79).The overall and disease-specific survival differences between the SND and CND cohorts were not statistically significant. In conclusion, SND, combined with proper adjuvant treatment, achieved regional control and survival rates comparable to CND.

The epigenetic regulation of Dicer and microRNA biogenesis by Panobinostat.

microRNAs (miRs) are small noncoding RNAs that regulate/fine tune many cellular protein networks by targeting mRNAs for either degradation or translational inhibition. Dicer, a type III endoribonuclease, is a critical component in miR biogenesis and is required for mature microRNA production. Abnormal Dicer expression occurs in numerous cancer types and correlates with poor patient prognosis. Recent reports have demonstrated that epigenetic agents, including histone deacetylase inhibitors (HDACi), may regulate Dicer and miR expression. HDACi are a class of epigenetic agents used to treat cancer, viral infections, and inflammatory disorders. However, little is known regarding the epigenetic regulation of miR biogenesis and function. We therefore investigated whether clinically successful HDACi modulated Dicer expression and found that Panobinostat, a clinically approved HDACi, enhanced Dicer expression via posttranscriptional mechanisms. Studies using proteasome inhibitors suggested that Panobinostat regulated the proteasomal degradation of Dicer. Further studies demonstrated that Panobinostat, despite increasing Dicer protein expression, decreased Dicer activity. This suggests that Dicer protein levels do not necessarily correlate with Dicer activity and mature miR levels. Taken together, we present evidence here that Panobinostat posttranscriptionally regulates Dicer/miR biogenesis and suggest Dicer as a potential therapeutic target in cancer.

The modulation of Dicer regulates tumor immunogenicity in melanoma.

MicroRNAs (miRs) are small non-coding RNAs that regulate most cellular protein networks by targeting mRNAs for translational inhibition or degradation. Dicer, a type III endoribonuclease, is a critical component in microRNA biogenesis and is required for mature microRNA production. Abnormal Dicer expression occurs in numerous cancer types and correlates with poor patient prognosis. For example, increased Dicer expression in melanoma is associated with more aggressive tumors (higher tumor mitotic index and depth of invasion) and poor patient prognosis. However, the role that Dicer plays in melanoma development and immune evasion remains unclear. Here, we report on a newly discovered relationship between Dicer expression and tumor immunogenicity. To investigate Dicer's role in regulating melanoma immunogenicity, Dicer knockdown studies were performed. We found that B16F0-Dicer deficient cells exhibited decreased tumor growth compared to control cells and were capable of inducing anti-tumor immunity. The decrease in tumor growth was abrogated in immunodeficient NSG mice and was shown to be dependent upon CD8+ T cells. Dicer knockdown also induced a more responsive immune gene profile in melanoma cells. Further studies demonstrated that CD8+ T cells preferentially killed Dicer knockdown tumor cells compared to control cells. Taken together, we present evidence which links Dicer expression to tumor immunogenicity in melanoma.

Dicer and microRNA expression in multiple sclerosis and response to interferon therapy.

Dysregulation of microRNA expression has been shown in multiple sclerosis (MS); however, the mechanisms underlying these changes, their response to therapy and the impact of microRNA changes in MS are not completely understood. Dicer mediates the cleavage of precursor microRNAs to mature microRNAs and is dysregulated in multiple pathologies. Having shown that interferons regulate Dicer in vitro, we hypothesized that MS patient IFNß1a treatment could potentially alter Dicer expression. Dicer mRNA and protein levels, as well as microRNA expression, were determined in MS patient and healthy control PBL. Acute responses to IFNß1a were assessed in 50 patients. We found that Dicer protein but not mRNA levels decreases in MS patients while both are selectively induced in patients responding well to IFNß1a. Potential microRNA biomarkers for relapsing remitting multiple sclerosis (RRMS), secondary progressive multiple sclerosis (SPMS) and IFNß1a response are described. Contrasts in Dicer and microRNA expression levels between patient populations may offer insight into mechanisms underlying disease courses and responses to IFNß1a therapy. This work identifies Dicer regulation as both a potential mediator of MS pathology and a therapeutic target.

MHC class II regulation by epigenetic agents and microRNAs.

MicroRNAs have been shown to regulate gene expression both transcriptionally and translationally. Here, we examine evidence that various stresses regulate miRNAs which, in turn, regulate immune gene levels. Multiple studies are reviewed showing altered microRNA levels in normal cells under stress and in various disease states, including cancer. Unexpected was the finding that Dicer expression is altered by treatments with several agents, such as interferons and cortisone, employed in the treatment of immune disorders. Potential signal transduction pathways, including JAK/Stat, PI3K and PKR, that may regulate Dicer and microRNA levels in normal and stressed mammalian cells are discussed.

Restoration of immune response gene induction in trophoblast tumor cells associated with cellular senescence.

Trophoblast cells and many cancer cells that harbor foreign antigens may evade immunity by epigenetic silencing of key immune response genes, including MHC class I and II and CD40. Chromatin active agents, such as histone deacetylase inhibitors (HDACi), induce immune response gene expression but often the expression levels are low and the cells lack a robust antigen presentation response. We show here that pre-treatment of trophoblast cells and certain cancer cells with agents that activate stress pathways (Ras oncogene, PMA or H2O2) and induce senescence can substantially enhance the induction of immune response genes (MHC class II, CD40, MICA, MICB) by HDACi and restore a vigorous IFN-gamma response in trophoblast cells and tumor cells. These results could potentially impact the development of novel anti-cancer therapeutic strategies.

miRNA regulation of cytokine genes.

In this review we discuss specific examples of regulation of cytokine genes and focus on a new mechanism involving post-transcriptional regulation via miRNAs. The post-transcriptional regulation of cytokine genes via the destabilizing activity of AU-rich elements [AREs] and miRNAs is a pre-requisite for regulating the half-life of many cytokines and achieving the temporal and spatial distributions required for regulation of these genes.

MicroRNA targets in immune genes and the Dicer/Argonaute and ARE machinery components.

We studied 613 genes which regulate immunity and, utilizing predictive algorithms, identified 285 genes as microRNA (miRNA or miR) targets. Of these, approximately 250 are newly predicted gene-miR interactions. The frequency of predicted miRNA binding sites in immune gene 3'UTRs indicated preferential targeting of immune genes compared to the genome. Major targets include transcription factors, cofactors and chromatin modifiers whereas upstream factors, such as ligands and receptors (cytokines, chemokines and TLRs), were, in general, non-targets. About 10% of the immune genes were 'hubs' with eight or more different miRNAs predicted to target their 3'UTRs. Hubs were focused on certain key immune genes, such as BCL6, SMAD7, BLIMP1, NFAT5, EP300 and others. NF-kappaB and p53 do not themselves have binding sites for miRNAs but rather these pathways are targeted by miRNAs at downstream sites. MHC class II genes lacked miRNA targets but binding sites were identified in the CIITA gene and were shown experimentally to repress IFN-gamma-induced MHC class II activation. Unexpectedly, factors involved in regulating message stability via AU-rich elements (ARE) were heavily targeted. Moreover, multiple components involved in the generation and effector functions of miRNAs (Dicer and Argonautes) were themselves miRNA targets suggesting that a subset of miRNAs may indirectly control their own production as well as other miRNAs.

An epigenetic vaccine model active in the prevention and treatment of melanoma.

BACKGROUND: Numerous immune genes are epigenetically silenced in tumor cells and agents such as histone deacetylase inhibitors (HDACi), which reverse these effects, could potentially be used to develop therapeutic vaccines. The conversion of cancer cells to antigen presenting cells (APCs) by HDACi treatment could potentially provide an additional pathway, together with cross-presentation of tumor antigens by host APCs, to establish tumor immunity. METHODS: HDACi-treated B16 melanoma cells were used in a murine vaccine model, lymphocyte subset depletion, ELISpot and Cytotoxicity assays were employed to evaluate immunity. Antigen presentation assays, vaccination with isolated apoptotic preparations and tumorigenesis in MHC-deficient mice and radiation chimeras were performed to elucidate the mechanisms of vaccine-induced immunity. RESULTS: HDACi treatment enhanced the expression of MHC class II, CD40 and B7-1/2 on B16 cells and vaccination with HDACi-treated melanoma cells elicited tumor specific immunity in both prevention and treatment models. Cytotoxic and IFN-gamma-producing cells were identified in splenocytes and CD4+, CD8+ T cells and NK cells were all involved in the induction of immunity. Apoptotic cells derived from HDACi treatments, but not H2O2, significantly enhanced the effectiveness of the vaccine. HDACi-treated B16 cells become APCs in vitro and studies in chimeras defective in cross presentation demonstrate direct presentation in vivo and short-term but not memory responses and long-term immunity. CONCLUSION: The efficacy of this vaccine derives mainly from cross-presentation which is enhanced by HDACi-induced apoptosis. Additionally, epigenetic activation of immune genes may contribute to direct antigen presentation by tumor cells. Epigenetically altered cancer cells should be further explored as a vaccine strategy.

Epigenetic regulation of immune escape genes in cancer.

According to the concept of immune surveillance, the appearance of a tumor indicates that it has earlier evaded host defenses and subsequently must have escaped immunity to evolve into a full-blown cancer. Tumor escape mechanisms have focused mainly on mutations of immune and apoptotic pathway genes. However, data obtained over the past few years suggest that epigenetic silencing in cancer may be as frequent a cause of gene inactivation as are mutations. Here, we discuss the evidence that tumor immune evasion is mediated by non-mutational epigenetic events involving chromatin and that epigenetics collaborates with mutations in determining tumor progression. Since epigenetic changes are potentially reversible, the relative contribution of mutations and epigenetics, to the gene defects in any given tumor, may be a factor in determining the efficacy of treatments. We review new developments in basic chromatin mechanisms and in this context describe the rationale for the current use of epigenetic agents in cancer therapy and for a novel epigenetically generated tumor vaccine model. We emphasize that epigenetic cancer treatments are currently a 'blunt-sword' and suggest future directions for designing chromatin-based programs of potential value in the diagnosis and treatment of cancer.

Histone acetylation regulates the cell type specific CIITA promoters, MHC class II expression and antigen presentation in tumor cells.

The regulation of MHC class II expression by the class II transactivator (CIITA) is complex and differs in various cell types depending on the relative activity of three CIITA promoters. Here we show that, in plasma cell tumors, the deacetylase inhibitor trichostatin A (TSA) elicits PIII-CIITA but does not activate the IFN-gamma-inducible PIV-CIITA promoter. In trophoblast cells, all CIITA promoter types are constitutively silent and not induced by IFN-gamma or TSA treatment. TSA induction of PI-CIITA was restricted to macrophage and dendritic cell lines. In the Colon 26 tumor IFN-gamma induced endogenous PIV-CIITA but not PIII-CIITA while TSA activated class II in the apparent absence of CIITA. Reporter assays in Colon 26 showed that TSA induced PIII-CIITA but not PIV-CIITA. Transfection of a dominant negative CIITA plasmid in Colon 26 inhibited induction of class II by IFN-gamma but not TSA. Thus, the potential for both CIITA-dependent and -independent pathways of MHC induction exists within a single cell. Further evidence of CIITA-independent class II expression elicited by TSA was obtained using knockout mice with defects in CIITA, STAT-1alpha and IRF-1 expression. TSA treatment can also activate class II expression in mutant cell lines with deficiencies in signaling molecules, transcription factors and the BRG-1 cofactor that are required for IFN-gamma-induced CIITA expression. Importantly, after epigenetic activation by the deacetylase inhibitor, MHC class II is transported and displayed on the cell surface of a plasma cell tumor and it is converted to an efficient antigen presenting cell for protein and class II-peptide presentation.

Apoptotic and necrotic cells induced by different agents vary in their expression of MHC and costimulatory genes.

We have recently reported, in a murine tumor model, that apoptotic cells induced by different agents may vary in their ability to elicit host immunity. The basis for this observation is unclear but may involve varying efficiencies of cross-presentation and/or direct activation of immunity by different apoptotic preparations. As a first step in addressing this issue, we compared expression patterns of selected immune genes (MHC class I, class II, CD40, B7-1, B7-2) on viable and apoptotic populations induced by four different agents. The histone deacetylase inhibitor trichostatin A (TSA) induced MHC class II expression on viable and apoptotic cell populations, while LPAM, H2O2 and gamma-irradiation did not activate class II. Each agent employed elicited a different expression pattern of costimulatory molecules (CD40, B7-1, B7-2) on both apoptotic and 7-AAD+ 'necrotic' populations. In striking contrast to the TSA induction of MHC class II, class I cell surface protein was diminished on the apoptotic populations. These effects were not a result of changes in the cell cycle produced by the various treatments. The data demonstrate that distinctive gene expression patterns on viable and apoptotic cells are elicited by different apoptosis inducing agents. We discuss how expression patterns on dead or dying tumor cells could potentially affect the tumor's ability to elicit immunity.

An epigenetically altered tumor cell vaccine.

Functional inactivation of genes critical to immunity may occur by mutation and/or by repression, the latter being potentially reversible with agents that modify chromatin. This study was constructed to determine whether reversal of gene silencing, by altering the acetylation status of chromatin, might lead to an effective tumor vaccine. We show that the expression of selected genes important to tumor immunity, including MHC class II, CD40, and B7-1/2 are altered by treating tumor cells in vitro with a histone deacetylase inhibitor, trichostatin A (TSA). Tumor cells treated in vitro with TSA showed delayed onset and rate of tumor growth in 70% of the J558 plasmacytoma and 100% of the B16 melanoma injected animals. Long-term tumor specific immunity was elicited to rechallenge with wild-type cells in approximately 30% in both tumor models. Splenic T cells from immune mice lysed untreated tumor cells, and SCID mice did not manifest immunity, suggesting that T cells may be involved in immunity. We hypothesize that repression of immune genes is involved in the evasion of immunity by tumors and suggest that epigenetically altered cancer cells should be further explored as a strategy for the induction of tumor immunity.