A large cluster of human infections of Streptococcus suis in Bali, Indonesia.

A cluster of 18 inpatients and 21 outpatients with a major complaint of meningitis and a history of sharing traditional delicacies of raw pork and pig blood in a village festival led to the suspicion of Streptococcus suis (S. suis) meningitis in Sibang Kaja Village, Badung, Bali, Indonesia. We conducted an investigation and case finding to prevent human fatalities. Demography and laboratory examinations of the inpatients were recorded. Bacterial culture, identification, and sensitivity tests were conducted using a VITEK 2 Compact machine (Biomeriuex®) with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) or blood from the inpatients. The bacterial species were confirmed via PCR. A subsequent investigation was also conducted to identify the source of the meat, the presence of S. suis in slaughtered pigs, and the zoosanitary measures at pig farms and slaughterhouses. The five most common clinical signs were fever (92.3%), myalgia (46.1%), neck stiffness (25.6%), headache (23.1%), and nausea/vomiting (20.5%). S. suis was confirmed in two CSF and one blood specimens. All inpatients recovered following intravenous treatment with ceftriaxone every 12 h for 14 days and dexamethasone every 6 h for 4 days, while the outpatients were treated with 500 mg of amoxicillin three times daily for 7 days. The veterinary and environmental investigation identified the source of the pork for the festival, confirmed the presence of S. suis in the slaughtered pigs, and elucidated the sanitary measures applied at the pig farms and slaughterhouses. We conclude that infections of S. suis in humans can spread in cluster phenomena following the sharing of high-risk food. A prompt and early response, as well as early treatment of patients, is paramount in case finding to enable a favourable outcome of full recovery. Additionally, the implementation of the "One Health" approach provides a comprehensive picture of the management of S. suis infection in humans.

Intranasal administration of inactivated avian influenza virus of H5N1 subtype vaccine-induced systemic immune response in chicken and mice.

AIM: The need for non-parenteral administration of inactivated avian influenza virus of H5N1 subtype (AIV-H5N1) vaccine is paramount. Here, we provide preliminary data on the immune response of chicken and mice after intranasal administration of AIV-H5N1-inactivated vaccine with ISCOMS, Inmunair (INM), and combined ISCOMS and INM as an adjuvant. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The AIV isolate of A/Chicken/Denpasar/01/2004 (H5N1) was cultivated in specific pathogen-free chicken eggs and inactivated with formaldehyde. The vaccine preparation was added with those adjuvants for intranasal administration and aluminum hydroxide for subcutaneous injection. The chicken and mouse were vaccinated at the age of 3 weeks or 1 month and repeated 2 weeks thereafter. In one experiment, chicken was injected with Newcastle disease virus (NDV) at the same time with AIV vaccine. The sera were collected at one (serum 1) and 2 w (serum 2) after booster vaccination. The anti-AIV-H5 and NDV antibodies in chicken sera were detected using hemagglutination inhibition (HI) assay. Mouse IgG anti-AIV-H5N1 antibody was detected using ELISA. RESULTS: The result shows that the geometric mean titers (GMTs) of chicken sera of intranasal vaccinated with inactivated AIV-H5N1 vaccine with mixed ISCOM- INM as adjuvant were <20.0 and 22.7 unit HI-unit (HIU) in serum 1 and serum 2, respectively. The GMTs of the positive control group were 23.7 and 25.7 HIU in serum 1 and serum 2, respectively. The result of the second experiment shows that IgG anti-AIV-H5N1 was detected in mouse sera. In the third experiment, the GMTs of anti-NDV in chicken vaccinated subsequently with inactivated NDV vaccine and AIV-H5N1 with mixed ISCOMS-INM administrated intranasally and aluminum hydroxide adjuvant administrated through subcutaneous injection as well as positive control group receiving NDV vaccine only were 28.0, 28.0, and 27.4 HIU in serum 1 while were 29.6, 29.2, and 28.2 HIU in serum 2, respectively. CONCLUSION: Intranasal administration of inactivated AIV-H5N1 vaccine-induced a systemic immune response in chicken and mice after adding ISCOMS and/or INM as adjuvants. The adjuvant and the intranasal administration caused no immunosuppressive effect on the chicken immune response to NDV vaccine.

Factors influencing growth hormone levels of Bali cattle in Bali, Nusa Penida, and Sumbawa Islands, Indonesia.

AIM: Bali cattle (Bos javanicus) are an Indonesian's native cattle breed that distributed in Asia to Australia. The scientific literature on these cattle is scarce. The growth hormone (GH) of Bali cattle is investigated from three separated islands, namely, Bali, Nusa Penida, and Sumbawa. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Forty plasma samples were collected from each island, and the GH was measured using a commercial enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay kit. The data were analyzed based on the origin, sex, and cattle raising practices. RESULTS: We found that the GH level (bovine GH [BGH]) of animal kept in stall 1.72±0.70 µg/ml was higher than free-grazing animal 1.27±0.81 µg/ml. The GH level was lower in female (1.22±0.62 µg/ml) compared to male animals (1.77±0.83 µg/ml). CONCLUSION: We conclude that the level of BGH in Bali cattle was low and statistically equal from all origins. The different level was related to sex and management practices. Further validation is needed through observing the growth rate following BGH administration and discovering the inbreeding coefficient of the animal in Indonesia.

Genetic structure and signatures of selection in grey reef sharks (Carcharhinus amblyrhynchos).

With overfishing reducing the abundance of marine predators in multiple marine ecosystems, knowledge of genetic structure and local adaptation may provide valuable information to assist sustainable management. Despite recent technological advances, most studies on sharks have used small sets of neutral markers to describe their genetic structure. We used 5517 nuclear single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and a mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) gene to characterize patterns of genetic structure and detect signatures of selection in grey reef sharks (Carcharhinus amblyrhynchos). Using samples from Australia, Indonesia and oceanic reefs in the Indian Ocean, we established that large oceanic distances represent barriers to gene flow, whereas genetic differentiation on continental shelves follows an isolation by distance model. In Australia and Indonesia differentiation at nuclear SNPs was weak, with coral reefs acting as stepping stones maintaining connectivity across large distances. Differentiation of mtDNA was stronger, and more pronounced in females, suggesting sex-biased dispersal. Four independent tests identified a set of loci putatively under selection, indicating that grey reef sharks in eastern Australia are likely under different selective pressures to those in western Australia and Indonesia. Genetic distances averaged across all loci were uncorrelated with genetic distances calculated from outlier loci, supporting the conclusion that different processes underpin genetic divergence in these two data sets. This pattern of heterogeneous genomic differentiation, suggestive of local adaptation, has implications for the conservation of grey reef sharks; furthermore, it highlights that marine species showing little genetic differentiation at neutral loci may exhibit patterns of cryptic genetic structure driven by local selection.

Phylogenetic analysis and victim contact tracing of rabies virus from humans and dogs in Bali, Indonesia.

SUMMARY: The emergence of human and animal rabies in Bali since November 2008 has attracted local, national and international interest. The potential origin and time of introduction of rabies virus to Bali is described. The nucleoprotein (N) gene of rabies virus from dog brain and human clinical specimens was sequenced using an automated DNA sequencer. Phylogenetic inference with Bayesian Markov Chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) analysis using the Bayesian Evolutionary Analysis by Sampling Trees (BEAST) v. 1.7.5 software confirmed that the outbreak of rabies in Bali was caused by an Indonesian lineage virus following a single introduction. The ancestor of Bali viruses was the descendant of a virus from Kalimantan. Contact tracing showed that the event most likely occurred in early 2008. The introduction of rabies into a large unvaccinated dog population in Bali clearly demonstrates the risk of disease transmission for government agencies and should lead to an increased preparedness and efforts for sustained risk reduction to prevent such events from occurring in future.

Mapping of cross-reacting and serotype-specific epitopes on the VP3 structural protein of the infectious bursal disease virus (IBDV).

The binding sites of a panel of monoclonal antibodies cross-reacting with the structural protein VP3 of the two serotypes of the infectious bursal disease virus (IBDV) could be mapped to four segments of the VP3 gene. Two of these antigenic domains also carry epitopes which are specific for one serotype only. Formation of the common or type-specific epitopes is in agreement with homologous or mismatching amino acid sequences yielding hydrophilic segments on the VP3 polypeptide. These antigenic patterns obtained by immunoblotting could be verified by a competitive ELISA.