Stress-induced mucin 13 reductions drive intestinal microbiome shifts and despair behaviors.

Depression is a prevalent psychological condition with limited treatment options. While its etiology is multifactorial, both chronic stress and changes in microbiome composition are associated with disease pathology. Stress is known to induce microbiome dysbiosis, defined here as a change in microbial composition associated with a pathological condition. This state of dysbiosis is known to feedback on depressive symptoms. While studies have demonstrated that targeted restoration of the microbiome can alleviate depressive-like symptoms in mice, translating these findings to human patients has proven challenging due to the complexity of the human microbiome. As such, there is an urgent need to identify factors upstream of microbial dysbiosis. Here we investigate the role of mucin 13 as an upstream mediator of microbiome composition changes in the context of stress. Using a model of chronic stress, we show that the glycocalyx protein, mucin 13, is selectively reduced after psychological stress exposure. We further demonstrate that the reduction of Muc13 is mediated by the Hnf4 transcription factor family. Finally, we determine that deleting Muc13 is sufficient to drive microbiome shifts and despair behaviors. These findings shed light on the mechanisms behind stress-induced microbial changes and reveal a novel regulator of mucin 13 expression.

Mass Spectrometry-Compatible Elution Technique Enables an Improved Mucin-Selective Enrichment Strategy to Probe the Mucinome.

Mucin-domain glycoproteins are densely O-glycosylated and play critical roles in a host of healthy and disease-driven biological functions. Previously, we developed a mucin-selective enrichment strategy by employing a catalytically inactive mucinase (StcE) conjugated to a solid support. While this method was effective, it suffered from low throughput and high sample requirements. Further, the elution step required boiling in SDS, thus necessitating an in-gel digest with trypsin. Here, we introduce innovative elution conditions amenable to mucinase digestion and downstream analysis using mass spectrometry. This increased throughput and lowered sample input while maintaining mucin selectivity and enhancing the glycopeptide signal. We then benchmarked this technique against different O-glycan binding moieties for their ability to enrich mucins from various cell lines and human serum. Overall, the new method outperformed our previous procedure and all of the other enrichment techniques tested. This allowed for the effective isolation of more mucin-domain glycoproteins, resulting in a high number of O-glycopeptides, thus enhancing our ability to analyze the mucinome.

Glycoproteomic landscape and structural dynamics of TIM family immune checkpoints enabled by mucinase SmE.

Mucin-domain glycoproteins are densely O-glycosylated and play critical roles in a host of biological functions. In particular, the T cell immunoglobulin and mucin-domain containing family of proteins (TIM-1, -3, -4) decorate immune cells and act as key regulators in cellular immunity. However, their dense O-glycosylation remains enigmatic, primarily due to the challenges associated with studying mucin domains. Here, we demonstrate that the mucinase SmE has a unique ability to cleave at residues bearing very complex glycans. SmE enables improved mass spectrometric analysis of several mucins, including the entire TIM family. With this information in-hand, we perform molecular dynamics (MD) simulations of TIM-3 and -4 to understand how glycosylation affects structural features of these proteins. Finally, we use these models to investigate the functional relevance of glycosylation for TIM-3 function and ligand binding. Overall, we present a powerful workflow to better understand the detailed molecular structures and functions of the mucinome.

False-Positive Glycopeptide Identification via In-FAIMS Fragmentation.

High-field asymmetric waveform ion mobility spectrometry (FAIMS) separates glycopeptides in the gas phase prior to mass spectrometry (MS) analysis, thus offering the potential to analyze glycopeptides without prior enrichment. Several studies have demonstrated the ability of FAIMS to enhance glycopeptide detection but have primarily focused on N-glycosylation. Here, we evaluated FAIMS for O-glycoprotein and mucin-domain glycoprotein analysis using samples of varying complexity. We demonstrated that FAIMS was useful in increasingly complex samples as it allowed for the identification of more glycosylated species. However, during our analyses, we observed a phenomenon called "in FAIMS fragmentation" (IFF) akin to in source fragmentation but occurring during FAIMS separation. FAIMS experiments showed a 2- to 5-fold increase in spectral matches from IFF compared with control experiments. These results were also replicated in previously published data, indicating that this is likely a systemic occurrence when using FAIMS. Our study highlights that although there are potential benefits to using FAIMS separation, caution must be exercised in data analysis because of prevalent IFF, which may limit its applicability in the broader field of O-glycoproteomics.

O-Linked Sialoglycans Modulate the Proteolysis of SARS-CoV-2 Spike and Likely Contribute to the Mutational Trajectory in Variants of Concern.

The emergence of a polybasic cleavage motif for the protease furin in SARS-CoV-2 spike has been established as a major factor for human viral transmission. The region N-terminal to that motif is extensively mutated in variants of concern (VOCs). Besides furin, spikes from these variants appear to rely on other proteases for maturation, including TMPRSS2. Glycans near the cleavage site have raised questions about proteolytic processing and the consequences of variant-borne mutations. Here, we identify that sialic acid-containing O-linked glycans on Thr678 of SARS-CoV-2 spike influence furin and TMPRSS2 cleavage and posit O-linked glycosylation as a likely driving force for the emergence of VOC mutations. We provide direct evidence that the glycosyltransferase GalNAc-T1 primes glycosylation at Thr678 in the living cell, an event that is suppressed by mutations in the VOCs Alpha, Delta, and Omicron. We found that the sole incorporation of N-acetylgalactosamine did not impact furin activity in synthetic O-glycopeptides, but the presence of sialic acid reduced the furin rate by up to 65%. Similarly, O-glycosylation with a sialylated trisaccharide had a negative impact on TMPRSS2 cleavage. With a chemistry-centered approach, we substantiate O-glycosylation as a major determinant of spike maturation and propose disruption of O-glycosylation as a substantial driving force for VOC evolution.

Comprehensive analysis of platelet glycoprotein Ibα ectodomain glycosylation.

BACKGROUND: Platelet glycoprotein (GP) Ibα is the major ligand-binding subunit of the GPIb-IX-V complex that binds von Willebrand factor. GPIbα is heavily glycosylated, and its glycans have been proposed to play key roles in platelet clearance, von Willebrand factor binding, and as target antigens in immune thrombocytopenia syndromes. Despite its importance in platelet biology, the glycosylation profile of GPIbα is not well characterized. OBJECTIVES: The aim of this study was to comprehensively analyze GPIbα amino acid sites of glycosylation (glycosites) and glycan structures. METHODS: GPIbα ectodomain that was recombinantly expressed or that was purified from human platelets was analyzed by Western blot, mass spectrometry glycomics, and mass spectrometry glycopeptide analysis to define glycosites and the structures of the attached glycans. RESULTS: We identified a diverse repertoire of N- and O-glycans, including sialoglycans, Tn antigen, T antigen, and ABO(H) blood group antigens. In the analysis of the recombinant protein, we identified 62 unique O-glycosites. In the analysis of the endogenous protein purified from platelets, we identified 48 unique O-glycosites and 1 N-glycosite. The GPIbα mucin domain is densely O-glycosylated. Glycosites are also located within the macroglycopeptide domain and mechanosensory domain. CONCLUSIONS: This comprehensive analysis of GPIbα glycosylation lays the foundation for further studies to determine the functional and structural roles of GPIbα glycans.

Glycoproteomic landscape and structural dynamics of TIM family immune checkpoints enabled by mucinase SmE.

Mucin-domain glycoproteins are densely O-glycosylated and play critical roles in a host of biological functions. In particular, the T cell immunoglobulin and mucin-domain containing family of proteins (TIM-1, -3, -4) decorate immune cells and act as key checkpoint inhibitors in cancer. However, their dense O-glycosylation remains enigmatic both in terms of glycoproteomic landscape and structural dynamics, primarily due to the challenges associated with studying mucin domains. Here, we present a mucinase (SmE) and demonstrate its ability to selectively cleave along the mucin glycoprotein backbone, similar to others of its kind. Unlike other mucinases, though, SmE harbors the unique ability to cleave at residues bearing extremely complex glycans which enabled improved mass spectrometric analysis of several mucins, including the entire TIM family. With this information in-hand, we performed molecular dynamics (MD) simulations of TIM-3 and -4 to demonstrate how glycosylation affects structural features of these proteins. Overall, we present a powerful workflow to better understand the detailed molecular structures of the mucinome.

Bump-and-hole engineering of human polypeptide N-acetylgalactosamine transferases to dissect their protein substrates and glycosylation sites in cells.

Despite the known disease relevance of glycans, the biological function and substrate specificities of individual glycosyltransferases are often ill-defined. Here, we describe a protocol to develop chemical, bioorthogonal reporters for the activity of the GalNAc-T family of glycosyltransferases using a tactic termed bump-and-hole engineering. This allows identification of the protein substrates and glycosylation sites of single GalNAc-Ts. Despite requiring transfection of cells with the engineered transferases and enzymes for biosynthesis of bioorthogonal substrates, the tactic complements methods in molecular biology. For complete details on the use and execution of this protocol, please refer to Schumann et al. (2020)1, Cioce et al. (2021)2, and Cioce et al. (2022)3.

Optimized mucin-selective enrichment strategy to probe the mucinome.

Mucin-domain glycoproteins are densely O-glycosylated and play critical roles in a host of healthy and disease-driven biological functions. Previously, we developed a mucin-selective enrichment strategy by employing a catalytically inactive mucinase (StcE) conjugated to solid support. While this method was effective, it suffered from low throughput and high sample requirements. Further, the elution step required boiling in SDS, thus necessitating an in-gel digest with trypsin. Here, we optimized our previous enrichment method to include elution conditions amenable to mucinase digestion and downstream analysis with mass spectrometry. This increased throughput and lowered sample input while maintaining mucin selectivity and enhancing glycopeptide signal. We then benchmarked this technique against different O-glycan binding moieties for their ability to enrich mucins from various cell lines and human serum. Overall, the new method outperformed our previous procedure and all other enrichment techniques tested. This allowed for effective isolation of more mucin-domain glycoproteins, resulting in a high number of O-glycopeptides, thus enhancing our ability to analyze the mucinome.

Cell-specific bioorthogonal tagging of glycoproteins.

Altered glycoprotein expression is an undisputed corollary of cancer development. Understanding these alterations is paramount but hampered by limitations underlying cellular model systems. For instance, the intricate interactions between tumour and host cannot be adequately recapitulated in monoculture of tumour-derived cell lines. More complex co-culture models usually rely on sorting procedures for proteome analyses and rarely capture the details of protein glycosylation. Here, we report a strategy termed Bio-Orthogonal Cell line-specific Tagging of Glycoproteins (BOCTAG). Cells are equipped by transfection with an artificial biosynthetic pathway that transforms bioorthogonally tagged sugars into the corresponding nucleotide-sugars. Only transfected cells incorporate bioorthogonal tags into glycoproteins in the presence of non-transfected cells. We employ BOCTAG as an imaging technique and to annotate cell-specific glycosylation sites in mass spectrometry-glycoproteomics. We demonstrate application in co-culture and mouse models, allowing for profiling of the glycoproteome as an important modulator of cellular function.

A previously uncharacterized O-glycopeptidase from Akkermansia muciniphila requires the Tn-antigen for cleavage of the peptide bond.

Akkermansia muciniphila is key member of the human gut microbiota that impacts many features of host health. A major characteristic of this bacterium is its interaction with host mucin, which is abundant in the gut environment, and its ability to metabolize mucin as a nutrient source. The machinery deployed by A. muciniphila to enable this interaction appears to be extensive and sophisticated, yet it is incompletely defined. The uncharacterized protein AMUC_1438 is encoded by a gene that was previously shown to be upregulated when the bacterium is grown on mucin. This uncharacterized protein has features suggestive of carbohydrate-recognition and peptidase activity, which led us to hypothesize that it has a role in mucin depolymerization. Here, we provide structural and functional support for the assignment of AMUC_1438 as a unique O-glycopeptidase with mucin-degrading capacity. O-glycopeptidase enzymes recognize glycans but hydrolyze the peptide backbone and are common in host-adapted microbes that colonize or invade mucus layers. Structural, kinetic, and mutagenic analyses point to a metzincin metalloprotease catalytic motif but with an active site that specifically recognizes a GalNAc residue α-linked to serine or threonine (i.e., the Tn-antigen). The enzyme catalyzes hydrolysis of the bond immediately N-terminal to the glycosylated residue. Additional modeling analyses suggest the presence of a carbohydrate-binding module that may assist in substrate recognition. We anticipate that these results will be fundamental to a wider understanding of the O-glycopeptidase class of enzymes and how they may contribute to host adaptation.

Reinspection of a Clinical Proteomics Tumor Analysis Consortium (CPTAC) Dataset with Cloud Computing Reveals Abundant Post-Translational Modifications and Protein Sequence Variants.

The Clinical Proteomic Tumor Analysis Consortium (CPTAC) has provided some of the most in-depth analyses of the phenotypes of human tumors ever constructed. Today, the majority of proteomic data analysis is still performed using software housed on desktop computers which limits the number of sequence variants and post-translational modifications that can be considered. The original CPTAC studies limited the search for PTMs to only samples that were chemically enriched for those modified peptides. Similarly, the only sequence variants considered were those with strong evidence at the exon or transcript level. In this multi-institutional collaborative reanalysis, we utilized unbiased protein databases containing millions of human sequence variants in conjunction with hundreds of common post-translational modifications. Using these tools, we identified tens of thousands of high-confidence PTMs and sequence variants. We identified 4132 phosphorylated peptides in nonenriched samples, 93% of which were confirmed in the samples which were chemically enriched for phosphopeptides. In addition, our results also cover 90% of the high-confidence variants reported by the original proteogenomics study, without the need for sample specific next-generation sequencing. Finally, we report fivefold more somatic and germline variants that have an independent evidence at the peptide level, including mutations in ERRB2 and BCAS1. In this reanalysis of CPTAC proteomic data with cloud computing, we present an openly available and searchable web resource of the highest-coverage proteomic profiling of human tumors described to date.

Cloud Computing Based Immunopeptidomics Utilizing Community Curated Variant Libraries Simplifies and Improves Neo-Antigen Discovery in Metastatic Melanoma.

Unique peptide neo-antigens presented on the cell surface are attractive targets for researchers in nearly all areas of personalized medicine. Cells presenting peptides with mutated or other non-canonical sequences can be utilized for both targeted therapies and diagnostics. Today's state-of-the-art pipelines utilize complementary proteogenomic approaches where RNA or ribosomal sequencing data helps to create libraries from which tandem mass spectrometry data can be compared. In this study, we present an alternative approach whereby cloud computing is utilized to power neo-antigen searches against community curated databases containing more than 7 million human sequence variants. Using these expansive databases of high-quality sequences as a reference, we reanalyze the original data from two previously reported studies to identify neo-antigen targets in metastatic melanoma. Using our approach, we identify 79 percent of the non-canonical peptides reported by previous genomic analyses of these files. Furthermore, we report 18-fold more non-canonical peptides than previously reported. The novel neo-antigens we report herein can be corroborated by secondary analyses such as high predicted binding affinity, when analyzed by well-established tools such as NetMHC. Finally, we report 738 non-canonical peptides shared by at least five patient samples, and 3258 shared across the two studies. This illustrates the depth of data that is present, but typically missed by lower statistical power proteogenomic approaches. This large list of shared peptides across the two studies, their annotation, non-canonical origin, as well as MS/MS spectra from the two studies are made available on a web portal for community analysis.

Direct Target Site Identification of a Sulfonyl-Triazole Covalent Kinase Probe by LC-MS Chemical Proteomics.

Chemical proteomics is widely used for the global investigation of protein activity and binding of small molecule ligands. Covalent probe binding and inhibition are assessed using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) to gain molecular information on targeted proteins and probe-modified sites. The identification of amino acid sites modified by large complex probes, however, is particularly challenging because of the increased size, hydrophobicity, and charge state of peptides derived from modified proteins. These studies are important for direct evaluation of proteome-wide selectivity of inhibitor scaffolds used to develop targeted covalent inhibitors. Here, we disclose reverse-phase chromatography and MS dissociation conditions tailored for binding site identification using a clickable covalent kinase inhibitor containing a sulfonyl-triazole reactive group (KY-26). We applied this LC-MS/MS strategy to identify tyrosine and lysine sites modified by KY-26 in functional sites of kinases and other ATP-/NAD-binding proteins (>65 in total) in live cells. Our studies revealed key bioanalytical conditions to guide future chemical proteomic workflows for direct target site identification of complex irreversible probes and inhibitors.

MHC Phosphopeptides: Promising Targets for Immunotherapy of Cancer and Other Chronic Diseases.

Major histocompatibility complex-associated peptides have been considered as potential immunotherapeutic targets for many years. MHC class I phosphopeptides result from dysregulated cell signaling pathways that are common across cancers and both viral and bacterial infections. These antigens are recognized by central memory T cells from healthy donors, indicating that they are considered antigenic by the immune system and that they are presented across different individuals and diseases. Based on these responses and the similar dysregulation, phosphorylated antigens are promising candidates for prevention or treatment of different cancers as well as a number of other chronic diseases.

Sequencing a Bispecific Antibody by Controlling Chain Concentration Effects When Using an Immobilized Nonspecific Protease.

Complete sequence coverage of monospecific antibodies was previously achieved using immobilized aspergillopepsin I in a single LC-MS/MS analysis. Bispecific antibodies are asymmetrical compared to their monospecific antibody counterparts, resulting in a decrease in the concentration of individual subunits. Four standard proteins were used to characterize the effect of a decrease in concentration when using this immobilized enzyme reactor. Low concentration samples resulted in the elimination of large peptide products due to a greater number of enzymatic cleavages. A competitive inhibitor rich in arginine residues reduced the number of enzymatic cleavages to the protein and retained large molecular weight products. The digestion of a bispecific antibody with competitive inhibition of aspergillopepsin I maintained large peptide products better suited for sequence reconstruction, resulting in complete sequence coverage from a single LC-MS/MS analysis.

MHC-restricted phosphopeptide antigens: preclinical validation and first-in-humans clinical trial in participants with high-risk melanoma.

BACKGROUND: Phosphorylated peptides presented by MHC molecules represent a new class of neoantigens expressed on cancer cells and recognized by CD8 T-cells. These peptides are promising targets for cancer immunotherapy. Previous work identified an HLA-A*0201-restricted phosphopeptide from insulin receptor substrate 2 (pIRS2) as one such target. The purpose of this study was to characterize a second phosphopeptide, from breast cancer antiestrogen resistance 3 (BCAR3), and to evaluate safety and immunogenicity of a novel immunotherapic vaccine comprising either or both of these phosphorylated peptides. METHODS: Phosphorylated BCAR3 protein was evaluated in melanoma and breast cancer cell lines by Western blot, and recognition by T-cells specific for HLA-A*0201-restricted phosphorylated BCAR3 peptide (pBCAR3126-134) was determined by 51Cr release assay and intracellular cytokine staining. Human tumor explants were also evaluated by mass spectrometry for presentation of pIRS2 and pBCAR3 peptides. For the clinical trial, participants with resected stage IIA-IV melanoma were vaccinated 6 times over 12 weeks with one or both peptides in incomplete Freund's adjuvant and Hiltonol (poly-ICLC). Adverse events (AEs) were coded based on National Cancer Institute (NCI) Common Terminology Criteria for Adverse Events (CTCAE) V.4.03, with provision for early study termination if dose-limiting toxicity (DLT) rates exceeded 33%. The enrollment target was 12 participants evaluable for immune response to each peptide. T-cell responses were assessed by interferon-γ ELISpot assay. RESULTS: pBCAR3 peptides were immunogenic in vivo in mice, and in vitro in normal human donors, and T-cells specific for pBCAR3126-134 controlled outgrowth of a tumor xenograft. The pIRS21097-1105 peptide was identified by mass spectrometry from human hepatocellular carcinoma tumors. In the clinical trial, 15 participants were enrolled. All had grade 1 or 2 treatment-related AEs, but there were no grade 3-4 AEs, DLTs or deaths on study. T-cell responses were induced to the pIRS21097-1105 peptide in 5/12 patients (42%, 90% CI 18% to 68%) and to the pBCAR3126-134 peptide in 2/12 patients (17%, 90% CI 3% to 44%). CONCLUSION: This study supports the safety and immunogenicity of vaccines containing the cancer-associated phosphopeptides pBCAR3126-134 and pIRS21097-1105, and the data support continued development of immune therapy targeting phosphopeptides. Future studies will define ways to further enhance the magnitude and durability of phosphopeptide-specific immune responses. TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER: NCT01846143.

Murine xenograft bioreactors for human immunopeptidome discovery.

The study of peptides presented by MHC class I and class II molecules is limited by the need for relatively large cell numbers, especially when studying post-translationally modified or otherwise rare peptide species. To overcome this problem, we pose the hypothesis that human cells grown as xenografts in immunodeficient mice should produce equivalent immunopeptidomes as cultured cells. Comparing human cell lines grown either in vitro or as murine xenografts, we show that the immunopeptidome is substantially preserved. Numerous features are shared across both sample types, including peptides and proteins featured, length distributions, and HLA-binding motifs. Peptides well-represented in both groups were from more abundant proteins, or those with stronger predicted HLA binding affinities. Samples grown in vivo also recapitulated a similar phospho-immunopeptidome, with common sequences being those found at high copy number on the cell surface. These data indicate that xenografts are indeed a viable methodology for the production of cells for immunopeptidomic discovery.

Acetonitrile Ion Suppression in Atmospheric Pressure Ionization Mass Spectrometry.

Efforts to analyze trace levels of cyclic peroxides by liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry gave evidence that acetonitrile suppressed ion formation. Further investigations extended this discovery to ketones, linear peroxides, esters, and possibly many other types of compounds, including triazole and menadione. Direct ionization suppression caused by acetonitrile was observed for multiple adduct types in both electrospray ionization and atmospheric pressure chemical ionization. The addition of only 2% acetonitrile significantly decreased the sensitivity of analyte response. Efforts to identify the mechanism were made using various nitriles. The ion suppression was reduced by substitution of an acetonitrile hydrogen with an electron-withdrawing group, but was exacerbated by electron-donating or steric groups adjacent to the nitrile. Although current theory does not explain this phenomenon, we propose that polar interactions between the various functionalities and the nitrile may be forming neutral aggregates that manifest as ionization suppression. Graphical Abstract ᅟ.