Personality traits and psychological complaints under patients suffering from headaches.

Background and purpose:

Although headaches are often comorbid with psychological symptoms, the underlying psychological processes, e.g. the role of personality dimensions as headache determinants remains unclear. Studies found associations between headaches and various personality traits; according to the Big Five model of personality, persons suffering from headaches exhibit a higher rate in neuroticism, while a lower rate in extraversion, openness to experiences and positive emotions. This is the first study to clarify the associations among duration, intensity, and frequency of headaches and personality dimensions. Through this study we could get into the personality dimensions in the background of pain experience and that which personality dimensions bear a part in the behaviour of the persons, who suffered from headache, but do not seek treatment through this complaint. 

Treated (Group1) and untreated (Group2) headache patients and healthy controls (Group3) were investigated (total of 360 participants). The main headache components of intensity, duration, and frequency were used as dependent variables with personality dimensions in the Big Five concept investigated by the NEO-PI-R Personality Inventory.

Employing multiple regression analysis, facets of personality described 14.7% of headache intensity, 10.9 % of duration, and 18.7 % of frequency variance. Group1 and Group2 reached significantly higher values on the dimension of anxiety, depression, and vulnerability to stress than Group3. Group1 showed a significantly higher value on trust personality dimension than Group3 and Group2. Group3 exhibited a significantly higher value in the trust dimension than Group2. Concerning vulnerability to stress, the highest value was yielded by the “treated and suffering from headaches” group and there was a significant difference also with the “untreated and suffering from headaches” group and with the control group. In this dimension, the “untreated and suffering from headaches” group’s point value was significantly higher than the control group’s (p<0.01, U=-4.501).

Our study demonstrates that the three headache components are not independent from personality traits, and personality traits may interact with treatment seeking behavior even in the presence of significant headache complaints. The role of the personality traits are significant in the intensity, duration and frequency of headaches. 

The effect of psychiatric comorbidities and stress-coping strategies on perceived quality of life in migraine.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Migraine is one of the most disabling primary headache conditions. We aimed to detect hidden symptoms of anxiety and depression and to survey stress-coping mechanisms and related quality of life in a large migraine population without any known psychiatric comorbidity. METHODS: 123 migraine patients (MG) and 66 healthy subjects (HC) completed the Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II), the State and Trait Anxiety Inventory (S-STAI and T-STAI), the Stress and Coping Inventory (SCI) and the 36-Item Short Form Health Survey (SF-36). RESULTS: MG patients reached significantly higher scores on the BDI-II and the T-STAI yielding previously undetected anxiety and depression symptoms. Significant differences were present on the SCI: higher stress scores and lower coping levels suggested impaired stress-coping strategies in migraine. MG patients achieved significantly lower scores on most of SF-36 subscales indicating lower perceived quality of life. Significant correlations were found between BDI-II, T-STAI, SCI scores and subscales of the SF-36. CONCLUSION: Unrecognized symptoms of anxiety and depression, as well as less effective stress-coping strategies might be related to the lower perceived quality of life in migraine. The screening of these symptoms might lead to more focused and efficient therapeutic strategies. Addressing stress management techniques could improve quality of life on the long-term.

Kynurenine System and Multiple Sclerosis, Pathomechanism and Drug Targets with An Emphasis on Laquinimod.

Multiple sclerosis is a common chronic, disabling autoimmune neurological disease affecting mainly young adults. In its pathomechanism, neurodegenerative and acute inflammatory characteristics are both involved. Disease-modifying therapies aim to reduce relapse-rate and slow down the deterioration in neurological functions. The currently available therapies fail to exert neuroprotective effects and most of them are associated with potentially toxic side-effects, therefore, ongoing research aims to develop novel drug candidates to cover these therapeutic gaps. The kynurenine pathway has been implicated in both the physiological processes of the central nervous system and in the pathomechanism of several neurological disorders as well. Alterations of the kynurenine pathway metabolites have been detected in multiple sclerosis and a number of potential therapeutic targets related to this metabolic route have been already identified. Laquinimod is a quinoline carboxamide showing structural similarities with kynurenic acid, which proved to have beneficial effects on reduction of brain atrophy and disability progression. The kynurenine pathway is therefore a promising target for the development of future drugs for the treatment of autoimmune diseases such as multiple sclerosis.

Excitotoxins, Mitochondrial and Redox Disturbances in Multiple Sclerosis.

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic inflammatory disease of the central nervous system (CNS). There is increasing evidence that MS is not only characterized by immune mediated inflammatory reactions, but also by neurodegenerative processes. There is cumulating evidence that neurodegenerative processes, for example mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative stress, and glutamate (Glu) excitotoxicity, seem to play an important role in the pathogenesis of MS. The alteration of mitochondrial homeostasis leads to the formation of excitotoxins and redox disturbances. Mitochondrial dysfunction (energy disposal failure, apoptosis, etc.), redox disturbances (oxidative stress and enhanced reactive oxygen and nitrogen species production), and excitotoxicity (Glu mediated toxicity) may play an important role in the progression of the disease, causing axonal and neuronal damage. This review focuses on the mechanisms of mitochondrial dysfunction (including mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) defects and mitochondrial structural/functional changes), oxidative stress (including reactive oxygen and nitric species), and excitotoxicity that are involved in MS and also discusses the potential targets and tools for therapeutic approaches in the future.

Treatment Possibilities for Psychosis in Parkinson's Disease with An Emphasis on the Newly Approved Drug: Pimavanserin.

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder with prominent motor and non-motor symptoms. Psychosis develops in over 40% of PD patients and it is one of the most distressing symptoms for patients and caregivers alike. Until recently, atypical antipsychotics, clozapine and quetiapine were used to treat psychotic symptoms, but treatment was associated with substantial concerns for side-effects of clozapine and unfounded efficacy for quetiapine. Extensive research has shown that the antipsychotic effect of these drugs could be attributed to serotonin 2a receptor (5-HT2A) triggered mechanisms. A selective 5-HT2A inverse agonist, pimavanserin, has been developed, investigated and has gained approval in April 2016 in the US for the treatment of hallucinations and delusions in PD. In this review we primarily focus on psychosis in PD, the current treatment possibilities and the new, emerging therapy, pimavanserin, a selective 5-HT2A inverse agonist. All articles were reviewed in this topic and indexed in PubMed with keywords: Parkinson's disease psychosis, serotonin 2a receptor inverse agonist, clozapine, quetiapine, pimavanserin.

Investigational α-synuclein aggregation inhibitors: hope for Parkinson's disease.

INTRODUCTION: The therapeutic management of Parkinson's disease (PD) is challenging and has not been fully resolved. The main challenges include motor fluctuations and levodopa-induced dyskinesia. Moreover, no disease-modifying or neuroprotective therapy is currently available. Areas covered: This review focuses on α-synuclein aggregation inhibitors and their therapeutic role in PD, with special attention to heat shock proteins, immunotherapy (active and passive), the potential of targeting the Ser129 phosphorylation site, and the antibiotic possibilities. Expert opinion: The induction of chaperones may provide beneficial strategy to target synucleinopathies, but further investigations are needed to find the best options. The promising preclinical results with immunotherapy suggest that it may be a valuable disease-modifying therapy in PD in the future. Clinical trials are currently in the initial phases, and future studies need to confirm the beneficial therapeutic effect in humans and clarify open questions as regards the exact mode of action and potential safety concerns. In case of covalent modifications, phosphorylation of α-synuclein is of outstanding importance; however, conflicting results and open questions exist which necessitate clarification. In vitro results suggest that several antibiotics may also influence α-synuclein aggregation, but these results are to be confirmed in the future.

Alleviation of pain in painful diabetic neuropathy.

INTRODUCTION: Painful diabetic neuropathy (PDN) is a disabling pain condition. Its pathomechanism remains unknown, but a sensitization and neuronal hyperexcitabilty have been suggested. Only symptomatic pharmacological pain management treatment is currently available. AREAS COVERED: The origin of PDN is enigmatic, and the evidence-based therapeutic guidelines therefore consist only of antidepressants and antiepileptics as first-line recommended drugs. This article relates to a MEDLINE/PubMed systematic search (2005-2015). EXPERT OPINION: The results of the meta-analysis from the aspect of the efficacy of amitriptyline, duloxetine, venlafaxine, gabapentin and pregabalin are favorable, but the placebo response rate is relatively high in patients with neuropathic pain. For personalization of the medication of PDN patients, the optimum dosing, the genotyping of the metabolizing enzymes and optimum biomarkers are needed. As concerns the future perspectives, specific sodium channel subtype inhibitors acting on peripheral nociceptive neurons or modified T-type voltage-gated calcium channel blockers may be promising targets for pharmaceutical innovations. Another attractive strategy for the treatment is based on the effects of monoclonal antibodies against nerve growth factor, sodium channels, specific receptor and cytokines. Botulinum toxin A, capsaicin patch and spinal cord stimulation therapies are the nearest future therapeutic options for the treatment of PDN patients.

Promising therapeutic agents for the treatment of Parkinson's disease.

INTRODUCTION: The therapeutic management of Parkinson's disease has not yet been fully resolved, with motor fluctuations and levodopa-induced dyskinesia representing special therapeutic challenges. Furthermore, no disease-modifying therapies are currently available. AREAS COVERED: This review focuses on promising novel therapies that are at present under investigation in Phase I or Phase II trials. Special emphasis is placed on gene therapies: vectors, the utilized gene constructs and the side-effects. Moreover, the main risk factors of the gene therapy (the insertional mutagenesis, the uncontrolled overproduction of the expressed protein and the autoimmune and inflammatory responses) are described. EXPERT OPINION: Gene therapies represent a promising field in the therapeutic palette. In order to mitigate the side-effects of this therapy, the developments focus on the vectors applied. Gene therapy appears to be promising candidate for the management of motor complications in advanced stages of Parkinson's disease. In addition to dopamine replacement therapy, this field may also offer a solution for neurogenesis and neuroprotection.

Excitotoxic Mechanisms in Non-Motor Dysfunctions and Levodopa- Induced Dyskinesia in Parkinson's Disease: The Role of the Interaction Between the Dopaminergic and the Kynurenine System.

Parkinson's disease is a common progressive neurodegenerative disorder presenting with characteristic motor symptoms. Non-motor dysfunctions and therapyrelated complications frequently develop, but are often underdiagnosed and undertreated. Levodopa- induced dyskinesia and impulse control disorders are suggested to share pathophysiological processes and m a y be related to alterations of the glutamatergic neurotransmission. Anti- glutamatergic interventions are therefore worth considering: several lines of evidence already indicate their beneficial effect. The kynurenine pathway offers the endogenous glutamate receptor antagonist kynurenic acid, which may act as a promising candidate for future drug development with the aim of assessment of the motor symptoms and therapy-related complications of Parkinson's disease.

Memantine and Kynurenic Acid: Current Neuropharmacological Aspects.

Glutamatergic neurotransmission, of special importance in the human brain, is implicated in key brain functions such as synaptic plasticity and memory. The excessive activation of N-methyl- D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors may result in excitotoxic neuronal damage; this process has been implicated in the pathomechanism of different neurodegenerative disorders, such as Alzheimer's disease (AD). Memantine is an uncompetitive antagonist of NMDA receptors with a favorable pharmacokinetic profile, and is therefore clinically well tolerated. Memantine is approved for the treatment of AD, but may additionally be beneficial for other dementia forms and pain conditions. Kynurenic acid (KYNA) is an endogenous antagonist of NMDA receptors which has been demonstrated under experimental conditions to be neuroprotective. The development of a well-tolerated NMDA antagonist may offer a novel therapeutic option for the treatment of neurodegenerative disease and pain syndromes. KYNA may be a valuable candidate for future drug development.

Brain Aging and Disorders of the Central Nervous System: Kynurenines and Drug Metabolism.

INTRODUCTION: The kynurenine pathway includes several neuroactive compounds, including kynurenic acid, picolinic acid, 3-hydroxykynurenine and quinolinic acid. The enzymatic cascade of the kynurenine pathway is tightly connected with the immune system, and may provide a link between the immune system and neurotransmission. Main Areas Covered: Alterations in this cascade are associated with neurodegenerative, neurocognitive, autoimmune and psychiatric disorders, such as Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, Alzheimer's disease, multiple sclerosis, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, migraine or schizophrenia. HIGHLIGHTS: This review highlights the alterations in this metabolic pathway in the physiological aging process and in different disorders. A survey is also presented of therapeutic possibilities of influencing this metabolic route, which can be achieved through the use of synthetic kynurenic acid analogues, enzyme inhibitors or even nanotechnology.

[Stress and the kynurenine pathway]. / A kinureninrendszer és a stressz.

The kynurenine pathway is the main route of tryptophan degradation which gives rise to several neuroactive metabolites. Kynurenic acid is an endogenous antagonist of excitatory receptors, which proved to be neuroprotective in the preclinical settings. Kynurenines have been implicated in the neuroendocrine regulatory processes. Stress induces several alterations in the kynurenine metabolism and this process may contribute to the development of stress-related pathological processes. Irritable bowel disease and gastric ulcer are well-known disorders which are related to psychiatric comorbidity and stress. In experimental conditions kynurenic acid proved to be beneficial by reducing inflammatory processes and normalizing microcirculation in the bowel. Further investigations are needed to better understand the relations of stress and the kynurenines, with the aim of developing novel therapeutic tools for stress-related pathologies.

Kynurenines and Multiple Sclerosis: The Dialogue between the Immune System and the Central Nervous System.

Multiple sclerosis is an inflammatory disease of the central nervous system, in which axonal transection takes place in parallel with acute inflammation to various, individual extents. The importance of the kynurenine pathway in the physiological functions and pathological processes of the nervous system has been extensively investigated, but it has additionally been implicated as having a regulatory function in the immune system. Alterations in the kynurenine pathway have been described in both preclinical and clinical investigations of multiple sclerosis. These observations led to the identification of potential therapeutic targets in multiple sclerosis, such as synthetic tryptophan analogs, endogenous tryptophan metabolites (e.g., cinnabarinic acid), structural analogs (laquinimod, teriflunomid, leflunomid and tranilast), indoleamine-2,3-dioxygenase inhibitors (1MT and berberine) and kynurenine-3-monooxygenase inhibitors (nicotinylalanine and Ro 61-8048). The kynurenine pathway is a promising novel target via which to influence the immune system and to achieve neuroprotection, and further research is therefore needed with the aim of developing novel drugs for the treatment of multiple sclerosis and other autoimmune diseases.

Migraine and neuropeptides.

Migraine is a common disabling neurovascular primary headache disorder. The pathomechanism is not clear, but extensive preclinical and clinical studies are ongoing. The structural basis of the leading hypothesis is the trigeminovascular system, which includes the trigeminal ganglion, the meningeal vasculature, and the distinct nuclei of the brainstem, the thalamus and the somatosensory cortex. This review covers the effects of sensory (calcitonin gene-related peptide, pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide and substance P), sympathetic (neuropeptide Y) and parasympathetic (vasoactive intestinal peptide) migraine-related neuropeptides and the functions of somatostatin, nociceptin and the orexins in the trigeminovascular system. These neuropeptides may take part in neurogenic inflammation (plasma protein extravasation and vasodilatation) of the intracranial vasculature and peripheral and central sensitization of the trigeminal system. The results of human clinical studies are discussed with regard to the alterations in these neuropeptides in the plasma, saliva and cerebrospinal fluid during or between migraine attacks, and the therapeutic possibilities involving migraine-related neuropeptides in the acute and prophylactic treatment of migraine headache are surveyed.

Drug targets of migraine and neuropathy: treatment of hyperexcitability.

Migraine and neuropathic pain are common causes of chronic pain. The exact pathomechanism has not been fully clarified for either disorder, but their pathophysiological backgrounds involve several similar mechanisms. Peripheral sensitization occurs in the neuronal elements of the dorsal root ganglion or the trigeminal ganglion, while central sensitization appears in the second-order neurons in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord or the trigeminal nucleus caudalis. Central neuronal hyperexcitability has been implicated in both disorders, and the emerging evidence suggests alterations in the glutamatergic neurotransmission and N-methyl-D-aspartate-receptor activation. Migraine and neuropathic pain additionally share certain clinical features, such as enhanced sensitivity to sensory stimuli and cutaneous allodynia. The pharmacotherapy of both diseases is often challenging, but several antiepileptic drugs that target hyperexcitability are beneficial for both migraine and neuropathic pain. Kynurenine pathway metabolites are capable of influencing the glutamate receptors, and might therefore be novel candidates for future drug development.

Drug safety in acute migraine treatment.

INTRODUCTION: A number of drugs are available for acute migraine treatment, but they are not all effective for all patients and all attacks. The safety profiles of migraine drugs limit their use in patients with certain comorbid conditions, and adverse effects may also reduce the level of patient compliance. AREAS COVERED: The different types of acute migraine drugs are discussed, with particular regard to safety issues and potential adverse effects. The frequent use of analgesics, ergot alkaloids and triptans may result in the development of medication overuse headache (MOH). EXPERT OPINION: The initiation of a migraine attack is not fully understood, and therefore treatment aimed at causative factors is currently not available. The tolerability and adverse effects of the drugs available at present often limit their use. NSAIDs are frequently associated with gastrointestinal, and possibly also cardiovascular side effects. Ergot alkaloids may induce arterial vasoconstriction, while the administration of triptans is contraindicated in cardiovascular, cerebrovascular and peripheral vascular diseases. The frequent use of these drugs poses the risk of the development of MOH. There is a need for pathomechanism-based drugs, and for the future achievement of personalized medicine.

Drug safety and tolerability in prophylactic migraine treatment.

INTRODUCTION: Migraine is a frequent, disabling primary headache disorder, whose pathomechanism is not yet fully understood. Prophylactic treatment is advisable for migraineurs with severe or highly frequent attacks, which impair the quality of life. AREAS COVERED: The different types of prophylactic migraine drugs are discussed, with particular regard to potential adverse effects and safety issues. ß-Adrenergic blockers, antiepileptic drugs and calcium-channel blockers are drugs widely used for migraine prevention, whereas complementary medicine and onabotulinumtoxin A can be used in selected cases. EXPERT OPINION: The background of the recurrence and chronification of migraine attacks has not been fully clarified, and causative preventive therapy is therefore not currently available. The tolerability and adverse effects of the currently used medications often limit their use. ß-Adrenergic receptor blockers may induce adverse cardiovascular events, whereas flunarizine is frequently associated with a weight gain and depression. As most migraine sufferers are young women of child-bearing age, the use of valproate is limited. Topiramate is associated with central nervous system-related side effects. There is a need for future development of pathomechanism-based preventive drugs, and personalized therapy tailored to the patient.

Novel kynurenic acid analogues in the treatment of migraine and neurodegenerative disorders: preclinical studies and pharmaceutical design.

Though migraine and neurodegenerative disorders have a high socioeconomic impact, their therapeutic management has not been fully addressed. Their pathomechanisms are not completely understood, but glutamateinduced excitotoxicity, mitochondrial disturbances and oxidative stress all seem to play crucial roles. The overactivation of glutamate receptors contributes to the hyperexcitability observed in migraine and also to the neurodegenerative process. The kynurenine pathway of the tryptophan metabolism produces the only known endogenous Nmethyl- D-aspartate receptor antagonist, kynurenic acid, which has been proven in different preclinical studies to exert a neuroprotective effect. Influencing the kynurenine pathway might be beneficial in migraine and neurodegenerative diseases, and in the normalization of glutamatergic neurotransmission and the prevention of excitotoxic neuronal damage. The synthesis of kynurenic acid analogues may offer a valuable tool for drug development.

NMDA antagonists as Parkinson's disease therapy: disseminating the evidence.

Oral levodopa is the current baseline therapy in the management of Parkinson's disease, but nonmotor complications and therapy-related dyskinesias pose an important challenge for clinicians. Glutamate receptors have been implicated in the neurodegenerative process of Parkinson's disease and also in the development of levodopa-induced dyskinesias. This article discusses the role of NMDA receptors in Parkinson's disease and their modulation as a possible therapeutic approach.