Pro-inflammatory properties of aureocin A53.

Aureocin A53 is a peptide bacteriocin produced by an opportunistic pathogen Staphylococcus aureus strain A53. The spatial structure of aureocin, unlike its amino acid sequence, is similar to the bacteriocin BacSp222, which was recently found to have the ability to induce the inflammatory response in the host cells. The presented research aimed to verify such properties also for aureocin A53. We demonstrated that the synthetic aureocin has slight cytotoxic activity towards murine monocytic-macrophage cells. This molecule was also able to activate murine P388.D1 and RAW 264.7 cells to IFN-γ-dependent production of nitric oxide and to activate production of the pro-inflammatory cytokine - TNF. We also proved that the observed pro-inflammatory activity of the studied bacteriocin is related to the stimulation of the TLR2/TLR6 heterodimer and, consequently, activation of the NF-κB transcription factor. To sum up, A53 is the second bacteriocin described in the literature, showing the pro-inflammatory activity against murine macrophage-like cells.

Despite the odds: formation of the SARS-CoV-2 methylation complex.

Coronaviruses modify their single-stranded RNA genome with a methylated cap during replication to mimic the eukaryotic mRNAs. The capping process is initiated by several nonstructural proteins (nsp) encoded in the viral genome. The methylation is performed by two methyltransferases, nsp14 and nsp16, while nsp10 acts as a co-factor to both. Additionally, nsp14 carries an exonuclease domain which operates in the proofreading system during RNA replication of the viral genome. Both nsp14 and nsp16 were reported to independently bind nsp10, but the available structural information suggests that the concomitant interaction between these three proteins would be impossible due to steric clashes. Here, we show that nsp14, nsp10, and nsp16 can form a heterotrimer complex upon significant allosteric change. This interaction is expected to encourage the formation of mature capped viral mRNA, modulating nsp14's exonuclease activity, and protecting the viral RNA. Our findings show that nsp14 is amenable to allosteric regulation and may serve as a novel target for therapeutic approaches.

Immune priming modulates Galleria mellonella and Pseudomonas entomophila interaction. Antimicrobial properties of Kazal peptide Pr13a.

Galleria mellonella larvae repeatedly infected with Pseudomonas entomophila bacteria re-induced their immune response. Its parameters, i.e. the defence activities of cell-free hemolymph, the presence and activity of antimicrobial peptides, and the expression of immune-relevant genes were modulated after the re-challenge in comparison to non-primed infected larvae, resulting in better protection. No enhanced resistance was observed when the larvae were initially infected with other microorganisms, and larvae pre-infected with P. entomophila were not more resistant to further infection with other pathogens. Then, the peptide profiles of hemolymph from primed- and non-primed larvae infected with P. entomophila were compared by quantitative RP-HPLC (Reverse Phase - High Performance Liquid Chromatography). The level of carbonic anhydrase, anionic peptide-1, proline peptide-2, and finally, unknown so far, putative Kazal peptide Pr13a was higher in the primed infected animals than in the larvae infected with P. entomophila for the first time. The expression of the Pr13a gene increased two-fold after the infection, but only in the primed animals. To check whether the enhanced level of Pr13a could have physiological significance, the peptide was purified to homogeneity and checked for its defence properties. In fact, it had antibacterial activity: at the concentration of 15 µM and 7.5 µM it reduced the number of P. entomophila and Bacillus thuringiensis CFU, respectively, to about 40%. The antibacterial activity of Pr13a was correlated with changes observed on the surface of the peptide-treated bacteria, e.g. surface roughness and adhesion force. The presented results bring us closer to finding hemolymph constituents responsible for the effect of priming on the immune response in re-infected insects.

Defence response of Galleria mellonella larvae to oral and intrahemocelic infection with Pseudomonasentomophila.

We report differences in the course of infection of G. mellonella larvae with P. entomophila via intrahemocelic and oral routes. Survival curves, larval morphology, histology, and induction of defence response were investigated. Larvae injected with 10 and 50 cells of P. entomophila activated a dose-dependent immune response, which was manifested by induction of immune-related genes and dose-dependent defence activity in larval hemolymph. In contrast, after the oral application of the pathogen, antimicrobial activity was detected in whole hemolymph of larvae infected with the 103 but not 105 dose in spite of the induction of immune response manifested as immune-relevant gene expression and defence activity of electrophoretically separated low-molecular hemolymph components. Among known proteins induced after the P. entomophila infection, we identified proline-rich peptide 1 and 2, cecropin D-like peptide, galiomycin, lysozyme, anionic peptide 1, defensin-like peptide, and a 27 kDa hemolymph protein. The expression of the lysozyme gene and the amount of protein in the hemolymph were correlated with inactivity of hemolymph in insects orally infected with a higher dose of P. entomophila, pointing to its role in the host-pathogen interaction.

BacSp222 bacteriocin as a novel ligand for TLR2/TLR6 heterodimer.

OBJECTIVE AND DESIGN: BacSp222 bacteriocin is a bactericidal and proinflammatory peptide stimulating immune cells to produce selected cytokines and NO in NF-ĸB dependent manner. This study aims to identify the receptor which mediates this activity. METHODS: We applied fluorescently labeled BacSp222 and a confocal microscopy imaging to analyze the direct interaction of the bacteriocin with the cells. Reporter HEK-Blue cells overexpressing human toll-like receptors (TLR2, TLR4, TLR5 or TLR2/TLR1 and TLR2/TLR6 heterodimers) were stimulated with BacSp222, and then the activity of NF-ĸB-dependent secreted embryonic alkaline phosphatase (SEAP) was measured. In turn, formylated peptide receptor (FPR) or TLR2 antagonists were used to verify bacteriocin-stimulated TNF production by murine monocyte-macrophage cell lines. RESULTS: BacSp222 undergoes internalization into cells without disturbing the cell membrane. FPR antagonists do not affect TNF produced by BacSp222-stimulated murine macrophage-like cells. In contrast, BacSp222 stimulates NF-ĸB activation in HEK-Blue overexpressing TLR2 or TLR2/TLR6 heterodimer, but not TLR2/TLR1, TLR4 or TLR5 receptors. Moreover, TLR2-specific antagonists inhibit NF-ĸB signaling in BacSp222-stimulated HEK-Blue TLR2/TLR6 cells and reduce TNF release by BacSp222-treated RAW 264.7 and P388.D1. CONCLUSIONS: BacSp222 is a novel ligand for TLR2/TLR6 heterodimer. By binding TLR complex the bacteriocin undergoes internalization, inducing proinflammatory signaling that employs MyD88 and NF-ĸB pathways.

Bacteriocin BacSp222 and Its Succinylated Forms Exhibit Proinflammatory Activities Toward Innate Immune Cells .

Purpose: The zoonotic opportunistic pathogen Staphylococcus pseudintermedius 222 produces BacSp222 - an atypical peptide exhibiting the features of a bacteriocin, a virulence factor, and a molecule modulating the host inflammatory reaction. The peptide is secreted in an unmodified form and, additionally, two forms modified posttranslationally by succinylation. This study is a comprehensive report focusing on the proinflammatory properties of such molecules. Methods: The study was performed on mouse monocyte/macrophage-like and endothelial cell lines as well as human neutrophils. The following peptides were studied: BacSp222, its succinylated forms, the form deprived of formylated methionine, and a reference bacteriocin - nisin. The measurements of the nitric oxide (NO) level, induced NO synthase (iNOS) expression, the profile of secreted cytokines, NF-kappa-B activation, reactive oxygen species (ROS) biosynthesis, and the formation of extracellular traps were conducted to evaluate the proinflammatory activity of the studied peptides. Results: BacSp222 and its succinylated forms effectively induced NO production and iNOS expression when combined with IFN-gamma in macrophage-like cells. All natural BacSp222 forms used alone or with IFN-gamma stimulated the production of TNF-alpha, MCP-1, and IL-1-alpha, while the co-stimulation with IFN-gamma increased IL-10 and IL-27. Upregulated TNF-alpha secretion observed after BacSp222 exposition resulted from increased expression but not from membrane TNF-alpha proteolysis. In neutrophils, all forms of bacteriocin upregulated IL-8, but did not induce ROS production or NETs formation. In all experiments, the activities of deformylated bacteriocin were lower or unequivocal in comparison to other forms of the peptide. Conclusion: All naturally secreted forms of BacSp222 exhibit proinflammatory activity against monocyte-macrophage cells and neutrophils, confirming that the biological role of BacSp222 goes beyond bactericidal and cytotoxic effects. The atypical posttranslational modification (succinylation) does not diminish its immunomodulatory activity in contrast to the lower antibacterial potential or cytotoxicity of such modified form established in previous studies.

Cationic protein 8 plays multiple roles in Galleria mellonella immunity.

Galleria mellonella cationic protein 8 (GmCP8) is a hemolymph protein previously identified as an opsonin and an inhibitor of fungal proteases. In this work, we showed its bactericidal activity toward Pseudomonas entomophila, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Bacillus thuringiensis, Staphylococcus aureus, and Escherichia coli and against yeast-like fungi Candida albicans. The activity against E. coli was correlated with bacterial membrane permeabilization. In turn, in the case of P. entomophila, B. thuringiensis, and C. albicans, the atomic force microscopy analysis of the microbial surface showed changes in the topography of cells and changes in their nanomechanical properties. GmCP8 also showed the inhibitory activity toward the serine protease trypsin and the metalloproteinase thermolysin. The expression of the gene encoding the GmCP8 protein did not increase either in the gut or in the fat body of G. mellonella after oral infection with P. entomophila. Similarly, the amount of GmCP8 in the hemolymph of G. mellonella did not change in immune-challenged insects. However, when GmCP8 was injected into the G. mellonella hemocel, a change in the survival curve was observed in the infected larvae. Our results shed new light on the function of GmCP8 protein in insect immunity, indicating its role in humoral defence mechanisms.

Fungal α-1,3-Glucan as a New Pathogen-Associated Molecular Pattern in the Insect Model Host Galleria mellonella.

Recognition of pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) by appropriate pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) is a key step in activating the host immune response. The role of a fungal PAMP is attributed to ß-1,3-glucan. The role of α-1,3-glucan, another fungal cell wall polysaccharide, in modulating the host immune response is not clear. This work investigates the potential of α-1,3-glucan as a fungal PAMP by analyzing the humoral immune response of the greater wax moth Galleria mellonella to Aspergillus niger α-1,3-glucan. We demonstrated that 57-kDa and 61-kDa hemolymph proteins, identified as ß-1,3-glucan recognition proteins, bound to A. niger α-1,3-glucan. Other hemolymph proteins, i.e., apolipophorin I, apolipophorin II, prophenoloxidase, phenoloxidase activating factor, arylphorin, and serine protease, were also identified among α-1,3-glucan-interacting proteins. In response to α-1,3-glucan, a 4.5-fold and 3-fold increase in the gene expression of antifungal peptides galiomicin and gallerimycin was demonstrated, respectively. The significant increase in the level of five defense peptides, including galiomicin, corresponded well with the highest antifungal activity in hemolymph. Our results indicate that A. niger α-1,3-glucan is recognized by the insect immune system, and immune response is triggered by this cell wall component. Thus, the role of a fungal PAMP for α-1,3-glucan can be postulated.

Structure, Biosynthesis, and Biological Activity of Succinylated Forms of Bacteriocin BacSp222.

BacSp222 is a multifunctional peptide produced by Staphylococcus pseudintermedius 222. This 50-amino acid long peptide belongs to subclass IId of bacteriocins and forms a four-helix bundle molecule. In addition to bactericidal functions, BacSp222 possesses also features of a virulence factor, manifested in immunomodulatory and cytotoxic activities toward eukaryotic cells. In the present study, we demonstrate that BacSp222 is produced in several post-translationally modified forms, succinylated at the ε-amino group of lysine residues. Such modifications have not been previously described for any bacteriocins. NMR and circular dichroism spectroscopy studies have shown that the modifications do not alter the spatial structure of the peptide. At the same time, succinylation significantly diminishes its bactericidal and cytotoxic potential. We demonstrate that the modification of the bacteriocin is an effect of non-enzymatic reaction with a highly reactive intracellular metabolite, i.e., succinyl-coenzyme A. The production of succinylated forms of the bacteriocin depends on environmental factors and on the access of bacteria to nutrients. Our study indicates that the production of succinylated forms of bacteriocin occurs in response to the changing environment, protects producer cells against the autotoxicity of the excreted peptide, and limits the pathogenicity of the strain.

Human skin microbiota-friendly lysostaphin.

Growing antibiotic resistance of bacteria is a burning problem of human and veterinary medicine. Expansion and introduction of novel microbicidal therapeutics is highly desirable. However, antibiotic treatment disturbs the balance of physiological microbiota by changing its qualitative and/or quantitative composition, resulting in a number of adverse effects that include secondary infections. Although such dysbiosis may be reversed by the treatment with probiotics, a more attractive alternative is the use of antibiotics that target only pathogens, while sparing the commensals. Here, we describe lysostaphin LSp222, an enzyme produced naturally by Staphylococcus pseudintermedius 222. LSp222 is highly effective against S. aureus, including its multi-drug resistant strains. Importantly, the inhibitory concentration for S. epidermidis, the predominant commensal in healthy human skin, is at least two orders of magnitude higher compared to S. aureus. Such significant therapeutic window makes LSp222 a microbiota-friendly antibacterial agent with a potential application in the treatment of S. aureus-driven skin infections.

A comparison of the production of antimicrobial peptides and proteins by Galleria mellonella larvae in response to infection with two Pseudomonas aeruginosa strains differing in the profile of secreted proteases.

The work presents identification of antimicrobial peptides and proteins (AMPs) in the hemolymph of Galleria mellonella larvae infected with two Pseudomonas aeruginosa strains (ATCC 27,853 and PA18), differing in the profile of secreted proteases. The insects were immunized with bacteria cultivated in rich (LB) and minimal (M9) media, which resulted in appearance of a similar broad set of AMPs in the hemolymph. Among them, 13 peptides and proteins were identified, i.e. proline-rich peptides 1 and 2, lebocin-like anionic peptide 1 and anionic peptide 2, defensin/galiomicin, cecropin, cecropin D-like peptide, apolipophoricin, gallerimycin, moricin-like peptide B, lysozyme, apolipophorin III, and superoxide dismutase. Bacterial strain- and/or medium-dependent changes in the level of proline-rich peptide 1, anionic peptide 1 and 2, moricin-like peptide B, cecropin D-like and gallerimycin were observed. The analysis of the expression of genes encoding cecropin, gallerimycin, and galiomicin indicated that they were differently affected by the bacterial strain but mainly by the medium used for bacterial culture. The highest expression was found for the LB medium. In addition to the antibacterial and antifungal activity, proteolytic activity was detected in the hemolymph of the P. aeruginosa-infected insects. Based on these results and those presented in our previous reports, it can be postulated that the appearance of AMPs in G. mellonella hemolymph can be triggered not only by P. aeruginosa pathogen associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) but also by bacterial extracellular proteases secreted during infection. However, although there were no qualitative differences in the set of AMPs depending on the P. aeruginosa strain and medium, differences in the level of particular AMPs synthesized in response to the bacteria used were observed.

Isolation, Identification, and Bioinformatic Analysis of Antibacterial Proteins and Peptides from Immunized Hemolymph of Red Palm Weevil Rhynchophorus ferrugineus.

Red palm weevil (Rhynchophorus ferrugineus Olivier, 1791, Coleoptera: Curculionidae) is a destructive pest of palms, rapidly extending its native geographical range and causing large economic losses worldwide. The present work describes isolation, identification, and bioinformatic analysis of antibacterial proteins and peptides from the immunized hemolymph of this beetle. In total, 17 different bactericidal or bacteriostatic compounds were isolated via a series of high-pressure liquid chromatography steps, and their partial amino acid sequences were determined by N-terminal sequencing or by mass spectrometry. The bioinformatic analysis of the results facilitated identification and description of corresponding nucleotide coding sequences for each peptide and protein, based on the recently published R. ferrugineus transcriptome database. The identified compounds are represented by several well-known bactericidal factors: two peptides similar to defensins, one cecropin-A1-like peptide, and one attacin-B-like protein. Interestingly, we have also identified some unexpected compounds comprising five isoforms of pheromone-binding proteins as well as seven isoforms of odorant-binding proteins. The particular role of these factors in insect response to bacterial infection needs further investigation.

Kallikrein 13 serves as a priming protease during infection by the human coronavirus HKU1.

Human coronavirus HKU1 (HCoV-HKU1) is associated with respiratory disease and is prevalent worldwide, but an in vitro model for viral replication is lacking. An interaction between the coronaviral spike (S) protein and its receptor is the primary determinant of tissue and host specificity; however, viral entry is a complex process requiring the concerted action of multiple cellular elements. Here, we found that the protease kallikrein 13 (KLK13) was required for the infection of human respiratory epithelial cells and was sufficient to mediate the entry of HCoV-HKU1 into nonpermissive RD cells. We also demonstrated the cleavage of the HCoV-HKU1 S protein by KLK13 in the S1/S2 region, suggesting that KLK13 is the priming enzyme for this virus. Together, these data suggest that protease distribution and specificity determine the tissue and cell specificity of the virus and may also regulate interspecies transmission.

Identification and characterization of Staphylococcus spp. and their susceptibility to insect apolipophorin III.

Aim: This study investigated the effect of an insect antimicrobial protein, apolipophorin III (apoLp-III), against two newly isolated, identified and characterized clinical strains of Staphylococcus spp. Materials & methods: Both strains were identified by 16S rRNA sequencing and metabolic and phenotypic profiling. The antibacterial activity of apoLp-III was tested using a colony counting assay. ApoLp-III interaction with bacterial cell surface was analyzed by Fourier transform IR spectroscopy. Results:Staphylococcus epidermidis and Staphylococcus capitis were identified. ApoLp-III exerted a dose-dependent bactericidal effect on the tested strains. The differences in the Staphylococcus spp. surface components may contribute to the various sensitivities of these strains to apoLp-III. Conclusion: ApoLp-III may provide a baseline for development of antibacterial preparations against Staphylococcus spp. involved in dermatological problems.

Choline Supplementation Sensitizes Legionella dumoffii to Galleria mellonella Apolipophorin III.

The growth of Legionella dumoffii can be inhibited by Galleria mellonella apolipophorin III (apoLp-III) which is an insect homologue of human apolipoprotein E., and choline-cultured L. dumoffii cells are considerably more susceptible to apoLp-III than bacteria grown without choline supplementation. In the present study, the interactions of apoLp-III with intact L. dumoffii cells cultured without and with exogenous choline were analyzed to explain the basis of this difference. Fluorescently labeled apoLp-III (FITC-apoLp-III) bound more efficiently to choline-grown L. dumoffii, as revealed by laser scanning confocal microscopy. The cell envelope of these bacteria was penetrated more deeply by FITC-apoLp-III, as demonstrated by fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy analyses. The increased susceptibility of the choline-cultured L. dumoffii to apoLp-III was also accompanied by alterations in the cell surface topography and nanomechanical properties. A detailed analysis of the interaction of apoLp-III with components of the L. dumoffii cells was carried out using both purified lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and liposomes composed of L. dumoffii phospholipids and LPS. A single micelle of L. dumoffii LPS was formed from 12 to 29 monomeric LPS molecules and one L. dumoffii LPS micelle bound two molecules of apoLp-III. ApoLp-III exhibited the strongest interactions with liposomes with incorporated LPS formed of phospholipids isolated from bacteria cultured on exogenous choline. These results indicated that the differences in the phospholipid content in the cell membrane, especially PC, and LPS affected the interactions of apoLp-III with bacterial cells and suggested that these differences contributed to the increased susceptibility of the choline-cultured L. dumoffii to G. mellonella apoLp-III.

Antifungal Activity of Anionic Defense Peptides: Insight into the Action of Galleria mellonella Anionic Peptide 2.

Anionic antimicrobial peptides constitute an integral component of animal innate immunity, however the mechanisms of their antifungal activity are still poorly understood. The action of a unique Galleria mellonella anionic peptide 2 (AP2) against fungal pathogen Candida albicans was examined using different microscopic techniques and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy. Although the exposure to AP2 decreased the survival rate of C. albicans cells, the viability of protoplasts was not affected, suggesting an important role of the fungal cell wall in the peptide action. Atomic force microscopy showed that the AP2-treated cells became decorated with numerous small clods and exhibited increased adhesion forces. Intensified lomasome formation, vacuolization, and partial distortion of the cell wall was also observed. FTIR spectroscopy suggested AP2 interactions with the cell surface proteins, leading to destabilization of protein secondary structures. Regardless of the anionic character of the whole AP2 molecule, bioinformatics analyses revealed the presence of amphipathic α-helices with exposed positively charged lysine residues. High content of the α-helical structure was confirmed after deconvolution of the IR absorption spectrum and during circular dichroism measurements. Our results indicated that the antimicrobial properties of G. mellonella AP2 rely on the same general characteristics found in cationic defense peptides.

Docking interactions determine early cleavage events in insulin proteolysis by pepsin: Experiment and simulation.

In silico modelling of cascade enzymatic proteolysis is an exceedingly complex and challenging task. Here, we study partial proteolysis of insulin by pepsin: a process leading to the release of a highly amyloidogenic two chain 'H-fragment'. The H-fragment retains several cleavage sites for pepsin. However, under favorable conditions H-monomers rapidly self-assemble into proteolysis-resistant amyloid fibrils whose composition provides snapshots of early and intermediate stages of the proteolysis. In this work, we report a remarkable agreement of experimentally determined and simulation-predicted cleavage sites on different stages of the proteolysis. Prediction of cleavage sites was based on the comprehensive analysis of the docking interactions from direct simulation of coupled folding and binding of insulin (or its cleaved derivatives) to pepsin. The most frequent interactions were found to be between the pepsin's active site, or its direct vicinity, and the experimentally determined insulin cleavage sites, which suggest that the docking interactions govern the proteolytic process.

Host-pathogen interactions upon the first and subsequent infection of Galleria mellonella with Candida albicans.

Insects are able to develop enhanced resistance in response to repeated infection. This phenomenon is called immune priming. In this work, so-called "primed" Galleria mellonella larvae were re-infected with a lethal dose of Candida albicans 48 h after injection of a non-lethal dose, while "non-primed" larvae were infected only with a lethal dose. The increased resistance of the primed larvae correlated with a slower rate of body colonisation by the fungus. Changes in the protein profiles were detected in the whole hemolymph of the primed insects. The analysis of low-molecular weight proteins and peptides obtained with the use of three different organic solvents and comparative quantitative HPLC analysis thereof showed that the primed larvae did not have higher amounts of any infection-inducible polypeptides than the non-primed larvae. Moreover, electrophoresis of low-molecular weight polypeptides revealed an even lower level of immune-induced peptides in the primed larvae than in the non-primed ones. Furthermore, the defence activity of larval hemolymph, i.e. the antifungal, antibacterial, and lysozyme-type activity, was up-regulated in the primed larvae at the time of re-infection and, consequently, at the early time points after the infection with the lethal dose. Twenty four hours after the infection, these parameters were equally high in the non-primed and primed larvae. Accordingly, at the time of the injection of the lethal dose, certain immune-inducible genes were up-regulated. However, 24 h after the infection with the lethal dose, their expression in both groups was incomparably higher than at the time of the infection and, in most cases, it was as high in the primed larvae as in the non-primed ones. We found that only anti yeast-like activity was enhanced 24 h after the re-infection. This correlated with results obtained by testing the priming effect in heterologous systems: the primed animals did not exhibit higher resistance to the other pathogens tested.

Studies on the interactions of neutral Galleria mellonella cecropin D with living bacterial cells.

Cecropins constitute an important family of insect antimicrobial peptides involved in humoral innate immune response. In comparison with the highly basic cecropins A and B, cecropins D are less cationic and more hydrophobic. Interestingly, cecropins D were described only in lepidopteran insects, e.g., the greater wax moth Galleria mellonella. In the present study, interactions of neutral cecropin D (pI 6.47) purified from hemolymph of G. mellonella with living Escherichia coli cells were investigated. Fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy using fluorescein isothiocyanate-labeled cecropin D revealed very fast binding of the peptide to E. coli cells. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy analyses showed that G. mellonella cecropin D interacted especially with E. coli LPS and probably other lipid components of the bacterial cell envelope and exhibited an ordering effect with regard to lipid chains. This effect is consistent with the peptide binding mechanism based upon its incorporation into the lipid phase of the cell membrane. The interaction resulted in permeabilization of the bacterial cell membrane. Upon cecropin D binding, the cells lost characteristic surface topography, which was accompanied by altered nanomechanical properties, as revealed by atomic force microscopy. The interaction of the peptide with the bacterial cells also led to intracellular damage, i.e., loss of the cell envelope multilayer structure, formation of membrane vesicles, and enlargement of periplasmic space, which eventually caused death of the bacteria. In summary, it can be concluded that amphipathic character of α-helices, exposure of small positively charged patches on their polar surfaces and hydrophobic interactions are important physicochemical characteristics related to effective binding to E. coli cells and antibacterial activity of neutral G. mellonella cecropin D.

The analysis of human leukocyte antigen-G level in patients with endometrial cancer by Western blot technique.

PROBLEM: Aberrant expression of human leukocyte antigen-G (HLA-G) in various malignancies has been shown to participate in tumour development by suppressing immune regulation within the tumour microenvironment. The detection of HLA-G has reportedly been correlated with certain clinicopathological parameters in several neoplasms. Both the soluble and membranous forms of HLA-G are biologically active, and therefore, we aimed to evaluate the HLA-G level by Western blot technique. METHOD OF STUDY: The total amount of HLA-G protein was analyzed in the primary tumour in 113 tissue samples derived from patients with endometrial cancer. The HLA-G protein level was measured by Western Blot technique and was analyzed with respect to the clinicopathological parameters. RESULTS: Human leukocyte antigen-G protein levels were statistically significantly higher in the cancerous tissues derived from the women with advanced endometrial cancer than those from women with early stage disease. Moreover, we showed that endometrial cancer patients with lymph node metastases had statistically significantly higher HLA-G levels in the primary uterine tumour. CONCLUSION: The aberrant expression of HLA-G antigens by malignant cells could be one of the strategies tumour cells use to escape immune surveillance. The presence of HLA-G within the cancer nest and its microenvironment would seem to be linked to disease progression.