Association of Eating Pattern, Chronotype, and Social Jetlag: A Cross-Sectional Study Using Data Accumulated in a Japanese Food-Logging Mobile Health Application.

Chronotype (morningness-eveningness) and social jetlag (SJL; discrepancy in the sleep pattern between the weekday and weekend) are related to eating behavior and health. The association between sleep behavior and the daily macro- and micronutrient eating pattern of each meal (breakfast, lunch, and dinner) have not been discussed well and need more evidence. Here, meal pattern datasets of Japanese participants aged 20-59 years were obtained as averages over 1 month from the data stored in the food-logging app "Asken". We allocated three groups for each chronotype and SJL. Multiple regression analyses revealed that morning chronotype and small SJL were associated with higher total daily intake of potassium, fiber, magnesium, phosphorus, and vitamin K. Breakfast energy intake and consumption of nutrients, including protein, lipid, carbohydrate, and minerals, were higher in the morning chronotype or small SJL. Lunch intake of potassium, cholesterol, fiber, magnesium, and vitamin K was also higher in the morning chronotype or small SJL. Dinner energy intake and nutrient intake of proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, sodium, and saturated fatty acids were lower in the morning chronotype or small SJL. The current data would help to establish a detailed reference for dietary intake which considers eating patterns over a day.

Association of Japanese Breakfast Intake with Macro- and Micronutrients and Morning Chronotype.

(1) Background: Dietary intake may have a remarkable effect on sleep because skipping breakfast and having a late dinner affects many sleep parameters. Breakfast is the most important meal of the day for children and adults to maintain morning chronotype. We examine whether breakfast style is associated with nutrient intake and sleep factors. (2) Methods: This cross-sectional analysis, with a large sample size of 2671 (766 men and 1805 women aged 20-60 years after data brush-up), was based on data obtained from an online survey. Correlation analysis was performed using Spearman's rank correlation test. The Kruskal-Wallis's test followed by post hoc Dunn's multiple comparison test was used to evaluate the interaction between sleep factors and breakfast categories. Multiple regression analyses were performed to identify variables associated with multiple confounding factors. Dietary data were analyzed using approximately one-month average dietary records from the application. The basic characteristics of the participants (age, sex, and BMI) and other lifestyle-related factors (sleep and physical activity) were obtained accordingly. Sleep parameters including the timing of weekday sleep onset, weekday wake-up, weekend (free day) sleep onset, weekend wake-up, sleep, and midpoints of sleep phase were calculated for each participant. We categorized participants' breakfast types into five groups: (1) Japanese meal, where breakfast may contain Japanese ingredients such as rice; (2) Western meal, where breakfast may contain bread; (3) alternating eating patterns of Japanese and Western meals; (4) cereals and supplements, where breakfast may contain cereals or supplements and energy bars; and (5) skipped breakfast (no breakfast). (3) Results: The midpoint values of the sleep phase on weekends adjusted for sleep debt on work days (MSFsc) related to chronotype were higher in women, suggesting that they may prefer eveningness. Participants with obesity, young age, and low physical activity preferred eveningness with longer sleep durations. Intake of Japanese-style breakfast was significantly associated with early wake-up time on both weekdays and weekends. Cereal-style breakfast intake was significantly associated with late wake-up on both weekdays and weekends. Intake of macronutrients such as protein, fat, carbohydrate, and sodium at breakfast time was positively and strongly associated with the intake of Japanese breakfast, whereas macronutrients were negatively associated with the intake of cereal breakfast. Among micronutrients, vitamin K was positively correlated with Japanese breakfast and negatively correlated with cereal breakfast; (4) Conclusions: Japanese-style breakfast is associated not only with morning preference but also with high intake of macro- and micronutrients.

Correction: Relationship Between Protein Intake in Each Traditional Meal and Physical Activity: Cross-sectional Study.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.2196/35898.].

Relationship Between Protein Intake in Each Traditional Meal and Physical Activity: Cross-sectional Study.

BACKGROUND: Protein intake plays an important role in the synthesis and maintenance of skeletal muscles for the prevention of health risks. It is also widely known that physical activity influences muscle function. However, no large-scale studies have examined the relationship between daily dietary habits, especially the timing of protein intake, and daily physical activity. OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this cross-sectional study was to investigate how protein intake and composition (involving the 3 major nutrients protein, fat, and carbohydrate) in the 3 traditional meals (breakfast, lunch, and dinner) are associated with physical activity. METHODS: Using daily dietary data accumulated in the smartphone food log app "Asken" and a web-based cross-sectional survey involving Asken users (N=8458), we analyzed nutrient intake and composition, as well as daily activity levels. As very few individuals skipped breakfast (1102/19,319 responses, 5.7%), we analyzed data for 3 meals per day. RESULTS: Spearman rank correlation analysis revealed that breakfast and lunch protein intakes had higher positive correlations with daily physical activity among the 3 major macronutrients (P<.001). These findings were confirmed by multivariate logistic regression analysis with confounding factors. Moreover, participants with higher protein intake and composition at breakfast or lunch tended to exhibit significantly greater physical activity than those with higher protein intake at dinner (P<.001). CONCLUSIONS: Among the 3 macronutrients, protein intake during breakfast and lunch was closely associated with daily physical activity.

Association Between Na, K, and Lipid Intake in Each Meal and Blood Pressure.

Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are one of the leading causes of death worldwide, and one of the most significant risk factors for CVDs is high blood pressure. Blood pressure is associated with various nutrients, such as sodium, potassium, and cholesterol. However, research focusing on the timing of intake of these nutrients and blood pressure has not been conducted. In this study, we used dietary data and a questionnaire asking about the sleep, physical activity, and blood pressure, collected from the food-log app "Asken" (total N = 2,402), to investigate the relationship between the dietary data of nutrient intake in the breakfast, lunch, and dinner and blood pressure. Daily total intake of various nutrients such as sodium, sodium-to-potassium ratio, total energy, lipid, carbohydrate, and saturated fat showed a significant association with blood pressure depending on the meal timing. From multiple regression analysis, eliminating the confounding factors, lunch sodium-to-potassium ratio, dinner energy, lipid, cholesterol, saturated fat, and alcohol intake were positively associated with blood pressure, whereas breakfast protein and lunch fiber intake showed a negative association with blood pressure. Our results suggest that nutrient intake timing is also an important factor in the prevention of high blood pressure. Our study provides possibilities to prevent hypertension by changing the timing of nutrient intake, especially sodium, together with potassium and lipids. However, because our research was limited to food-log app users, broader research regarding the general population needs to be conducted.

Solid-State Fermented Okara with Aspergillus spp. Improves Lipid Metabolism and High-Fat Diet Induced Obesity.

Okara is a major by-product of soymilk and tofu production. Despite retaining abundant nutrients after the process, okara is often under-utilized. In this study, solid-state fermentation (SSF) of okara was carried out using a koji starter (containing both Aspergillus oryzae and Aspergillus sojae) with the intention of releasing its untapped nutrients. Its effects on lipid metabolism in diet-induced obesity (DIO) were observed. The nutritional profile of fermented okara was elucidated using the following parameters: total phenolic content (TPC), pH, protein content, dietary fiber, amino acid content, and free sugar content. In vivo experiments were conducted using high-fat diets supplemented with unfermented okara and fermented okara over three weeks. Supplementation with fermented okara reduced body weight gain, adipose tissue weight, the serum triglyceride profile, and lipid accumulation in the liver, and altered the mRNA expression levels related to lipid metabolism; however, it did not affect pH and short-chain fatty acid (SCFA) production in this study. In conclusion, high-fat diets supplemented using okara fermented with Aspergillus spp. improved the lipid metabolism in mice, due to their high nutritional value, such as TPC, soy protein, and amino acids, and their synergistic effects without altering the gut microbiota.

Association between Irregular Meal Timing and the Mental Health of Japanese Workers.

Breakfast skipping and nighttime snacking have been identified as risk factors for obesity, diabetes, and cardiovascular diseases. However, the effects of irregularity of meal timing on health and daily quality of life are still unclear. In this study, a web-based self-administered questionnaire survey was conducted involving 4490 workers (73.3% males; average age = 47.4 ± 0.1 years) in Japan to investigate the association between meal habits, health, and social relationships. This study identified that irregular meal timing was correlated with higher neuroticism (one of the Big Five personality traits), lower physical activity levels, and higher productivity loss. Irregular meal timing was also associated with a higher incidence of sleep problems and lower subjective health conditions. Among health outcomes, a high correlation of irregular meal timing with mental health factors was observed. This study showed that irregularity of meal timing can be explained by unbalanced diets, frequent breakfast skipping, increased snacking frequency, and insufficient latency from the last meal to sleep onset. Finally, logistic regression analysis was conducted, and a significant contribution of meal timing irregularity to subjective mental health was found under adjustment for other confounding factors. These results suggest that irregular meal timing is a good marker of subjective mental health issues.

Distribution of dietary protein intake in daily meals influences skeletal muscle hypertrophy via the muscle clock.

The meal distribution of proteins throughout the day is usually skewed. However, its physiological implications and the effects of better protein distribution on muscle volume are largely unknown. Here, using the two-meals-per-day feeding model, we find that protein intake at the early active phase promotes overloading-induced muscle hypertrophy, in a manner dependent on the local muscle clock. Mice fed branched-chain amino acid (BCAA)-supplemented diets at the early active phase demonstrate skeletal muscle hypertrophy. However, distribution-dependent effects are not observed in ClockΔ19 or muscle-specific Bmal1 knockout mice. Additionally, we examined the relationship between the distribution of proteins in meals and muscle functions, such as skeletal muscle index and grip strength in humans. Higher muscle functions were observed in subjects who ingested dietary proteins mainly at breakfast than at dinner. These data suggest that protein intake at breakfast may be better for the maintenance of skeletal muscle mass.

The circadian clock is disrupted in mice with adenine-induced tubulointerstitial nephropathy.

Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD) is increasing in incidence and has become a worldwide health problem. Sleep disorders are prevalent in patients with CKD raising the possibility that these patients have a disorganized circadian timing system. Here, we examined the effect of adenine-induced tubulointerstitial nephropathy on the circadian system in mice. Compared to controls, adenine-treated mice showed serum biochemistry evidence of CKD as well as increased kidney expression of inflammation and fibrosis markers. Mice with CKD exhibited fragmented sleep behavior and locomotor activity, with lower degrees of cage activity compared to mice without CKD. On a molecular level, mice with CKD exhibited low amplitude rhythms in their central circadian clock as measured by bioluminescence in slices of the suprachiasmatic nucleus of PERIOD 2::LUCIFERASE mice. Whole animal imaging indicated that adenine treated mice also exhibited dampened oscillations in intact kidney, liver, and submandibular gland. Consistently, dampened circadian oscillations were observed in several circadian clock genes and clock-controlled genes in the kidney of the mice with CKD. Finally, mice with a genetically disrupted circadian clock (Clock mutants) were treated with adenine and compared to wild type control mice. The treatment evoked worse kidney damage as indicated by higher deposition of gelatinases (matrix metalloproteinase-2 and 9) and adenine metabolites in the kidney. Adenine also caused non-dipping hypertension and lower heart rate. Thus, our data indicate that central and peripheral circadian clocks are disrupted in the adenine-treated mice, and suggest that the disruption of the circadian clock accelerates CKD progression.

Eurotium Cristatum Fermented Okara as a Potential Food Ingredient to Combat Diabetes.

Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is a chronic disease, and dietary modification is a crucial part of disease management. Okara is a sustainable source of fibre-rich food. Most of the valorization research on okara focused more on the physical attributes instead of the possible health attributes. The fermentation of okara using microbes originated from food source, such as tea, sake, sufu and yoghurt, were explored here. The aim of this study is to investigate fermented okara as a functional food ingredient to reduce blood glucose levels. Fermented and non-fermented okara extracts were analyzed using the metabolomic approach with UHPLC-QTof-MSE. Statistical analysis demonstrated that the anthraquinones, emodin and physcion, served as potential markers and differentiated Eurotium cristatum fermented okara (ECO) over other choices of microbes. The in-vitro α-glucosidase activity assays and in-vivo mice studies showed that ECO can reduce postprandial blood glucose levels. A 20% ECO loading crispy snack prototype revealed a good nutrition composition and could serve as a fundamental formulation for future antidiabetes recipe development, strengthening the hypothesis that ECO can be used as a novel food ingredient for diabetic management.