Hemorrhagic stroke-induced subtype of inflammatory reactive astrocytes disrupts blood-brain barrier.

Astrocytes undergo disease-specific transcriptomic changes upon brain injury. However, phenotypic changes of astrocytes and their functions remain unclear after hemorrhagic stroke. Here we reported hemorrhagic stroke induced a group of inflammatory reactive astrocytes with high expression of Gfap and Vimentin, as well as inflammation-related genes lipocalin-2 (Lcn2), Complement component 3 (C3), and Serpina3n. In addition, we demonstrated that depletion of microglia but not macrophages inhibited the expression of inflammation-related genes in inflammatory reactive astrocytes. RNA sequencing showed that blood-brain barrier (BBB) disruption-related gene matrix metalloproteinase-3 (MMP3) was highly upregulated in inflammatory reactive astrocytes. Pharmacological inhibition of MMP3 in astrocytes or specific deletion of astrocytic MMP3 reduced BBB disruption and improved neurological outcomes of hemorrhagic stroke mice. Our study demonstrated that hemorrhagic stroke induced a group of inflammatory reactive astrocytes that were actively involved in disrupting BBB through MMP3, highlighting a specific group of inflammatory reactive astrocytes as a critical driver for BBB disruption in neurological diseases.

Advanced rehabilitation in ischaemic stroke research.

At present, due to the rapid progress of treatment technology in the acute phase of ischaemic stroke, the mortality of patients has been greatly reduced but the number of disabled survivors is increasing, and most of them are elderly patients. Physicians and rehabilitation therapists pay attention to develop all kinds of therapist techniques including physical therapy techniques, robot-assisted technology and artificial intelligence technology, and study the molecular, cellular or synergistic mechanisms of rehabilitation therapies to promote the effect of rehabilitation therapy. Here, we discussed different animal and in vitro models of ischaemic stroke for rehabilitation studies; the compound concept and technology of neurological rehabilitation; all kinds of biological mechanisms of physical therapy; the significance, assessment and efficacy of neurological rehabilitation; the application of brain-computer interface, rehabilitation robotic and non-invasive brain stimulation technology in stroke rehabilitation.

M2 Microglial Extracellular Vesicles Attenuated Blood-brain Barrier Disruption via MiR-23a-5p in Cerebral Ischemic Mice.

Protecting the integrity of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) is crucial for maintaining brain homeostasis after ischemic stroke. Previous studies showed that M2 microglial extracellular vesicles (EVs) played a neuroprotective role in cerebral ischemia. However, the role of M2 microglial EVs in maintaining BBB integrity is unclear. Therefore, we explored the mechanisms of M2 microglial EVs in regulating BBB integrity. To identify microglial EVs, we used nanoparticle tracking analysis, transmission electron microscopy, and western blot analysis. Adult male ICR mice were subjected to 90-min middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO), followed by the injection of PKH26-labeled M2 microglial EVs via the tail vein. After MCAO, we assessed brain infarct and edema volume, as well as modified neurological severity score. BBB integrity was measured by assessing IgG leakage. The effects of M2 microglial EVs on astrocytes and endothelial cells were also examined. To investigate the molecular mechanisms, we performed RNA sequencing, miR-23a-5p knockdown, and luciferase reporter assays. Our results showed that PKH26-labeled microglial EVs were mainly taken up by neurons and glial cells. M2 microglial EVs treatment decreased brain infarct and edema volume, modified neurological severity score, and IgG leakage, while increasing the ZO-1, occludin, and claudin-5 expression after MCAO. Knockdown of miR-23a-5p reversed these effects. RNA sequencing revealed that the TNF, MMP3 and NFκB signaling pathway involved in regulating BBB integrity. Luciferase reporter assay showed that miR-23a-5p could bind to the 3' UTR of TNF. M2 microglial EVs-derived miR-23a-5p decreased TNF, MMP3 and NFκB p65 expression in astrocytes after oxygen-glucose deprivation, thereby increasing ZO-1 and Claudin-5 expression in bEnd.3 cells. In conclusion, our findings demonstrated that M2 microglial EVs attenuated BBB disruption after cerebral ischemia by delivering miR-23a-5p, which targeted TNF and regulated MMP3 and NFκB p65 expression.

Microglia and astrocytes mediate synapse engulfment in a MER tyrosine kinase-dependent manner after traumatic brain injury.

Recent studies have shown that microglia/macrophages and astrocytes can mediate synaptic phagocytosis through the MER proto-oncokinase in developmental or stroke models, but it is unclear whether the same mechanism is also active in traumatic brain injury. In this study, we established a mouse model of traumatic brain injury and found that both microglia/macrophages and astrocytes phagocytosed synapses and expression of the MER proto-oncokinase increased 14 days after injury. Specific knockout of MER in microglia/macrophages or astrocytes markedly reduced injury volume and greatly improved neurobehavioral function. In addition, in both microglia/macrophages-specific and astrocytes-specific MER knock-out mice, the number of microglia/macrophage and astrocyte phagocytosing synapses was markedly decreased, and the total number of dendritic spines was increased. Our study suggested that MER proto-oncokinase expression in microglia/macrophages and astrocytes may play an important role in synaptic phagocytosis, and inhibiting this process could be a new strategy for treating traumatic brain injury.

M2 microglia-derived extracellular vesicles promote white matter repair and functional recovery via miR-23a-5p after cerebral ischemia in mice.

Rationale: White matter repair is critical for the cognitive and neurological functional recovery after ischemic stroke. M2 microglia are well-documented to enhance remyelination and their extracellular vesicles (EVs) mediate cellular function after brain injury. However, whether M2 microglia-derived EVs could promote white matter repair after cerebral ischemia and its underlying mechanism are largely unknown. Methods: EVs were isolated from IL-4 treated microglia (M2-EVs) and untreated microglia (M0-EVs). Adult ICR mice subjected to 90-minute transient middle cerebral artery occlusion received intravenous EVs treatment for seven consecutive days. Brain atrophy volume, neurobehavioral tests were examined within 28 days following ischemia. Immunohistochemistry, myelin transmission electron microscope and compound action potential measurement were performed to assess white matter structural remodeling, functional repair and oligodendrogenesis. The effects of M2-EVs on oligodendrocyte precursor cells (OPCs) were also examined in vitro. EVs' miRNA sequencing, specific miR-23a-5p knockdown in M2-EVs and luciferase reporter assay were used to explore the underlying mechanism. Results: M2-EVs reduced brain atrophy volume, promoted functional recovery, oligodendrogenesis and white matter repair in vivo, increased OPC proliferation, survival and differentiation in vitro. miR-23a-5p was enriched in M2-EVs and could promote OPC proliferation, survival and maturation, while knocking down miR-23a-5p in M2-EVs reversed the beneficial effects of M2-EVs both in vitro and in vivo. Luciferase reporter assay showed that miR-23a-5p directly targeted Olig3. Conclusion: Our results demonstrated that M2 microglia could communicate to OPCs through M2-EVs and promote white matter repair via miR-23a-5p possibly by directly targeting Olig3 after ischemic stroke, suggesting M2-EVs is a novel and promising therapeutic strategy for white matter repair in stroke and demyelinating disease.

Transcranial focused ultrasound stimulation reduces vasogenic edema after middle cerebral artery occlusion in mice.

Blood-brain barrier (BBB) disruption underlies the vasogenic edema and neuronal cell death induced by acute ischemic stroke. Reducing this disruption has therapeutic potential. Transcranial focused ultrasound stimulation has shown neuromodulatory and neuroprotective effects in various brain diseases including ischemic stroke. Ultrasound stimulation can reduce inflammation and promote angiogenesis and neural circuit remodeling. However, its effect on the BBB in the acute phase of ischemic stroke is unknown. In this study of mice subjected to middle cerebral artery occlusion for 90 minutes, low-intensity low-frequency (0.5 MHz) transcranial focused ultrasound stimulation was applied 2, 4, and 8 hours after occlusion. Ultrasound stimulation reduced edema volume, improved neurobehavioral outcomes, improved BBB integrity (enhanced tight junction protein ZO-1 expression and reduced IgG leakage), and reduced secretion of the inflammatory factors tumor necrosis factor-α and activation of matrix metalloproteinase-9 in the ischemic brain. Our results show that low-intensity ultrasound stimulation attenuated BBB disruption and edema formation, which suggests it may have therapeutic use in ischemic brain disease as a protector of BBB integrity.

Stroke subtype-dependent synapse elimination by reactive gliosis in mice.

The pathological role of reactive gliosis in CNS repair remains controversial. In this study, using murine ischemic and hemorrhagic stroke models, we demonstrated that microglia/macrophages and astrocytes are differentially involved in engulfing synapses in the reactive gliosis region. By specifically deleting MEGF10 and MERTK phagocytic receptors, we determined that inhibiting phagocytosis of microglia/macrophages or astrocytes in ischemic stroke improved neurobehavioral outcomes and attenuated brain damage. In hemorrhagic stroke, inhibiting phagocytosis of microglia/macrophages but not astrocytes improved neurobehavioral outcomes. Single-cell RNA sequencing revealed that phagocytosis related biological processes and pathways were downregulated in astrocytes of the hemorrhagic brain compared to the ischemic brain. Together, these findings suggest that reactive microgliosis and astrogliosis play individual roles in mediating synapse engulfment in pathologically distinct murine stroke models and preventing this process could rescue synapse loss.

Plasma from healthy donors protects blood-brain barrier integrity via FGF21 and improves the recovery in a mouse model of cerebral ischaemia.

BACKGROUND: Healthy plasma therapy reverses cognitive deficits and promotes neuroplasticity in ageing brain disease. However, whether healthy plasma therapy improve blood-brain barrier integrity after stroke remains unknown. METHODS: Here, we intravenously injected healthy female mouse plasma into adult female ischaemic stroke C57BL/6 mouse induced by 90 min transient middle cerebral artery occlusion for eight consecutive days. Infarct volume, brain atrophy and neurobehavioural tests were examined to assess the outcomes of plasma treatment. Cell apoptosis, blood-brain barrier integrity and fibroblast growth factor 21 knockout mice were used to explore the underlying mechanism. RESULTS: Plasma injection improved neurobehavioural recovery and decreased infarct volume, brain oedema and atrophy after stroke. Immunostaining showed that the number of transferase dUTP nick end labelling+/NeuN+ cells decreased in the plasma-injected group. Meanwhile, plasma injection reduced ZO-1, occluding and claudin-5 tight junction gap formation and IgG extravasation at 3 days after ischaemic stroke. Western blot results showed that the FGF21 expression increased in the plasma-injected mice. However, using FGF21 knockout mouse plasma injecting to the ischaemic wild-type mice diminished the neuroprotective effects. CONCLUSIONS: Our study demonstrated that healthy adult plasma treatment protected the structural and functional integrity of blood-brain barrier, reduced neuronal apoptosis and improved functional recovery via FGF21, opening a new avenue for ischaemic stroke therapy.

Transcranial Focused Ultrasound Stimulation Improves Neurorehabilitation after Middle Cerebral Artery Occlusion in Mice.

Transcranial focused ultrasound stimulation (tFUS) regulates neural activity in different brain regions in humans and animals. However, the role of ultrasound stimulation in modulating neural activity and promoting neurorehabilitation in the ischemic brain is largely unknown. In the present study, we explored the effect of tFUS on neurological rehabilitation and the underlying mechanism. Adult male ICR mice (n=42) underwent transient middle cerebral artery occlusion. One week after brain ischemia, low frequency (0.5 MHz) tFUS was applied to stimulate the ischemic hemisphere of mice for 7 consecutive days (10 minutes daily). Brain infarct volume, neurobehavioral tests, microglia activation, IL-10 and IL-10R levels were further assessed for up to 14 days. We found that the brain infarct volume was significantly reduced in the tFUS treated mice compared to that in the non-treated mice (p<0.05). Similarly, neurological severity scores, elevated body swing test, and corner test improved in the tFUS treated mice (p<0.05). We also demonstrated that tFUS resulted in increased M2 microglia in the ischemic brain region. The expression of IL-10R and IL-10 levels were also substantially upregulated (p<0.05). We concluded that tFUS served as a unique technique to promote neurorehabilitation after brain ischemia by promoting microglia polarization and further regulating IL-10 signaling in the ischemic brain.

Sensitive imaging of intact microvessels in vivo with synchrotron radiation.

Early stages of diseases, including stroke, hypertension, angiogenesis of tumours, spinal cord injuries, etc., are closely associated with the lesions of microvasculature. Rodent models of human vascular diseases are extensively used for the preclinical investigation of the disease evolution and therapy with synchrotron radiation. Therefore, non-invasive and in vivo X-ray imaging with high sensitivity and clarity is desperately needed to visualize the microvessels in live-animal models. Contrast agent is essential for the in vivo X-ray imaging of vessels and angiomatous tissue. Because of the non-rigid motion of adjacent tissues, the short circulation time and the intermittent flow of contrast agents in vessels, it is a great challenge for the traditional X-ray imaging methods to achieve well defined images of microvessels in vivo. In this article, move contrast X-ray imaging (MCXI) based on high-brightness synchrotron radiation is developed to overcome the intrinsic defects in conventional methods. Experiments with live rodents demonstrate the practicability of the MCXI method for sensitive and intact imaging of microvessels in vivo.

Fingolimod Inhibits Inflammation but Exacerbates Brain Edema in the Acute Phases of Cerebral Ischemia in Diabetic Mice.

Background and Purpose: Diabetes mellitus increases stroke incidence and mortality and hampers functional recovery after stroke. Fingolimod has been shown to improve neurofunctional recovery and reduce brain infarction after ischemic injury in mice without comorbidities. In this work, we investigated the effects of fingolimod in diabetic mice after transient middle cerebral artery occlusion (tMCAO). Methods: Hyperglycemia was induced by a single bolus streptozotocin injection. Adult male ICR mice (n = 86) underwent 1-h tMCAO surgery and received intraperitoneal injection of fingolimod (1 mg/kg) or vehicle immediately after reperfusion. Clark neurological score, brain infarction and edema, blood-brain barrier (BBB) integrity, apoptosis, and inflammation were evaluated at 24 h after tMCAO. Results: Fingolimod treatment reduced the number of infiltrated inflammatory cells and lowered the mRNA level of Tnfα. It also increased the ratio of Bcl-2/Bax. However, fingolimod significantly aggravated brain edema and reduced the expression levels of tight junction proteins ZO-1 and Occludin. The negative impacts of fingolimod on BBB integrity outweighed its beneficial effects in anti-inflammation, which resulted in the lack of improvement in endpoint outcomes at 24 h after tMCAO. Conclusion: Caution should be taken in considering the acute treatment using fingolimod for ischemic stroke with diabetes comorbidity.

Farnesoid X receptor knockout protects brain against ischemic injury through reducing neuronal apoptosis in mice.

BACKGROUND: Farnesoid X receptor (FXR) is a nuclear receptor that plays a critical role in controlling cell apoptosis in diverse diseases. Previous studies have shown that knocking out FXR improved cardiac function by reducing cardiomyocyte apoptosis in myocardial ischemic mice. However, the role of FXR after cerebral ischemia remains unknown. In this study, we explored the effects and mechanisms of FXR knockout (KO) on the functional recovery of mice post cerebral ischemia-reperfusion. METHODS: Adult male C57BL/6 wild type and FXR KO mice were subjected to 90-min transient middle cerebral artery occlusion (tMCAO). The mice were divided into five groups: sham, wild-type tMCAO, FXR KO tMCAO, wild-type tMCAO treated with calcium agonist Bayk8644, and FXR KO tMCAO treated with Bayk8644. FXR expression was examined using immunohistochemistry and Western blot. Brain infarct and brain atrophy volume were examined at 3 and 14 days after stroke respectively. Neurobehavioral tests were conducted up to 14 days after stroke. The protein levels of apoptotic factors (Bcl-2, Bax, and Cleaved caspase-3) and mRNA levels of pro-inflammatory factors (TNF-α, IL-6, IL-1ß, IL-17, and IL-18) were examined using Western blot and RT-PCR. TUNEL staining and calcium imaging were obtained using confocal and two-photon microscopy. RESULTS: The expression of FXR was upregulated after ischemic stroke, which is located in the nucleus of the neurons. FXR KO was found to reduce infarct volume and promote neurobehavioral recovery following tMCAO compared to the vehicle. The expression of apoptotic and pro-inflammatory factors decreased in FXR KO mice compared to the control. The number of NeuN+/TUNEL+ cells declined in the peri-infarct area of FXR KO mice compared to the vehicle. We further demonstrated that inhibition of FXR reduced calcium overload and addition of ionomycin could reverse this neuroprotective effect in vitro. What is more, in vivo results showed that enhancement of intracellular calcium concentrations could aggravate ischemic injury and reverse the neuroprotective effect of FXR KO in mice. CONCLUSIONS: FXR KO can promote neurobehavioral recovery and attenuate ischemic brain injury, inflammatory release, and neuronal apoptosis via reducing calcium influx, suggesting its role as a therapeutic target for stroke treatments.

P2Y6 receptor inhibition aggravates ischemic brain injury by reducing microglial phagocytosis.

INTRODUCTION: Clearance of damaged cells and debris is beneficial for the functional recovery after ischemic brain injury. However, the specific phagocytic receptor that mediates microglial phagocytosis after ischemic stroke is unknown. AIM: To investigate whether P2Y6 receptor-mediated microglial phagocytosis is beneficial for the debris clearance and functional recovery after ischemic stroke. RESULTS: The expression of the P2Y6 receptor in microglia increased within 3 days after transient middle cerebral artery occlusion. Inhibition of microglial phagocytosis by the selective inhibitor MRS2578 enlarged the brain atrophy and edema volume after ischemic stroke, subsequently aggravated neurological function as measured by modified neurological severity scores and Grid walking test. MRS2578 treatment had no effect on the expression of IL-1α, IL-1ß, IL-6, IL-10, TNF-α, TGF-ß, and MPO after ischemic stroke. Finally, we found that the expression of myosin light chain kinase decreased after microglial phagocytosis inhibition in the ischemic mouse brain, which suggested that myosin light chain kinase was involved in P2Y6 receptor-mediated phagocytosis. CONCLUSION: Our results indicate that P2Y6 receptor-mediated microglial phagocytosis plays a beneficial role during the acute stage of ischemic stroke, which can be a therapeutic target for ischemic stroke.

Microglia exacerbate white matter injury via complement C3/C3aR pathway after hypoperfusion.

Microglial activation participates in white matter injury after cerebral hypoperfusion. However, the underlying mechanism is unclear. Here, we explore whether activated microglia aggravate white matter injury via complement C3-C3aR pathway after chronic cerebral hypoperfusion. Methods: Adult male Sprague-Dawley rats (n = 80) underwent bilateral common carotid artery occlusion for 7, 14, and 28 days. Cerebral vessel density and blood flow were examined by synchrotron radiation angiography and three-dimensional arterial spin labeling. Neurobehavioral assessments, CLARITY imaging, and immunohistochemistry were performed to evaluate activation of microglia and C3-C3aR pathway. Furthermore, C3aR knockout mice were used to establish the causal relationship of C3-C3aR signaling on microglia activation and white matter injury after hypoperfusion. Results: Cerebral vessel density and blood flow were reduced after hypoperfusion (p<0.05). Spatial learning and memory deficits and white matter injury were shown (p<0.05). These impairments were correlated with aberrant microglia activation and an increase in the number of reactive microglia adhering to and phagocytosed myelin in the hypoperfusion group (p<0.05), which were accompanied by the up-regulation of complement C3 and its receptors C3aR (p<0.05). Genetic deletion of C3ar1 significantly inhibited aberrant microglial activation and reversed white matter injury after hypoperfusion (p<0.05). Furthermore, the C3aR antagonist SB290157 decreased the number of microglia adhering to myelin (p<0.05), attenuated white matter injury and cognitive deficits in chronic hypoperfusion rats (p<0.05). Conclusions: Our results demonstrated that aberrant activated microglia aggravate white matter injury via C3-C3aR pathway during chronic hypoperfusion. These findings indicate C3aR plays a critical role in mediating neuroinflammation and white matter injury through aberrant microglia activation, which provides a novel therapeutic target for the small vessel disease and vascular dementia.

DL-3n-Butylphthalide Improves Blood-Brain Barrier Integrity in Rat After Middle Cerebral Artery Occlusion.

Objective: DL-3n-butylphthalide (NBP) has beneficial effects in different stages of ischemic stroke. Our previous studies have demonstrated that NBP promoted angiogenesis in the perifocal region of the ischemic brain. However, the molecular mechanism of NBP for blood-brain barrier protection in acute ischemic stroke was unclear. Here, we explored the neuroprotective effects of NBP on blood-brain barrier integrity in the acute phase of ischemic stroke in a rat model. Methods: Adult male Sprague-Dawley rats (n = 82) underwent 2 h of transient middle cerebral artery occlusion and received 90 mg/kg of NBP for 3 days. Brain edema, infarct volume, surface blood flow, and neurological severity score were evaluated. Blood-brain barrier integrity was evaluated by Evans blue leakage and changes in tight junction proteins. We further examined AQP4 and eNOS expression, MMP-9 enzyme activity, and possible signaling pathways for the role of NBP after ischemic stroke. Results: NBP treatment significantly increased eNOS expression and surface blood flow in the brain, reduced brain edema and infarct volume, and improved neurological severity score compared to the control group (p < 0.05). Furthermore, NBP attenuated Evans blue and IgG leakage and increased tight junction protein expression compared to the control after 1 and 3 days of ischemic stroke (p < 0.05). Finally, NBP decreased AQP4 expression, MMP-9 enzyme activity, and increased MAPK expression during acute ischemic stroke. Conclusion: NBP protected blood-brain barrier integrity and attenuated brain injury in the acute phase of ischemic stroke by decreasing AQP4 expression and MMP-9 enzyme activity. The MAPK signaling pathway may be associated in this process.

Targeting Water in the Brain: Role of Aquaporin-4 in Ischemic Brain Edema.

Brain edema primarily occurs as a consequence of various cerebral injuries including ischemic stroke. Excessive accumulation of brain water content causes a gradual expansion of brain parenchyma, decreased blood flow and increased intracranial pressure and, ultimately, cerebral herniation and death. Current clinical treatment for ischemic edema is very limited, therefore, it is urgent to develop novel treatment strategies. Mounting evidence has demonstrated that AQP4, a water channel protein, is closely correlated with brain edema and could be an optimal therapeutic target for the reduction of ischemic brain edema. AQP4 is prevalently distributed in the central nervous system, and mainly regulates water flux in brain cells under normal and pathological conditions. This review focuses on the underlying mechanisms of AQP4 related to its dual role in edema formation and elimination.

Dl-3-N-butylphthalide attenuates ischemic reperfusion injury by improving the function of cerebral artery and circulation.

Dl-3-N-butylphthalide (NBP) is approved in China for the treatment of ischemic stroke. Previous studies have shown that NBP promotes recovery after stroke via multiple mechanisms. However, the effect of NBP on vascular function and thrombosis remains unclear. Here, we aim to study the effect of NBP on vascular function using a rat model of transient middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) and a state-of-the-art high-resolution synchrotron radiation angiography. Eighty SD rats underwent MCAO surgery. NBP (90 mg/kg) was administrated daily by gavage. Synchrotron radiation angiography was used to evaluate the cerebral vascular perfusion, vasoconstriction, and vasodilation in real-time. Neurological scores, brain infarction and atrophy were evaluated. Real-time PCR was used to assess the expression levels of thrombosis and vasoconstriction-related genes. Results revealed that NBP attenuated thrombosis after MCAO and reduced brain infarct and atrophy volume. NBP administrated at 1 and 4 h after MCAO prevented the vasoconstriction of the artery and maintained its diameter at normal level. Administrated at one week after surgery, NBP functioned as a vasodilator in rats after MCAO while displayed no vasodilating effect in sham group. Our results suggested that NBP attenuates brain injury via increasing the regional blood flow by reducing thrombosis and vasoconstriction.

Optogenetic Inhibition of Striatal GABAergic Neuronal Activity Improves Outcomes After Ischemic Brain Injury.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Striatal GABAergic neuron is known as a key regulator in adult neurogenesis. However, the specific role of striatal GABAergic neuronal activity in the promotion of neurological recovery after ischemic stroke remains unknown. Here, we used optogenetic approach to investigate these effects and mechanism. METHODS: Laser stimulation was delivered via an implanted optical fiber to inhibit or activate the striatal GABAergic neurons in Gad2-Arch-GFP or Gad2-ChR2-tdTomato mice (n=80) 1 week after 60-minute transient middle cerebral artery occlusion. Neurological severity score, brain atrophy volume, microvessel density, and cell morphological changes were examined using immunohistochemistry. Gene expression and protein levels of related growth factors were further examined using real-time polymerase chain reaction and Western blotting. RESULTS: Inhibiting striatal GABAergic neuronal activity improved functional recovery, reduced brain atrophy volume, and prohibited cell death compared with the control (P<0.05). Microvessel density and bFGF (basic fibroblast growth factor) expression in the inhibition group were also increased (P<0.05). In contrast, activation of striatal GABAergic neurons resulted in adverse effects compared with the control (P<0.05). Using cocultures of GABAergic neurons, astrocytes, and endothelial cells, we further demonstrated that the photoinhibition of GABAergic neuronal activity could upregulate bFGF expression in endothelial cells, depending on the presence of astrocytes. The conditioned medium from the aforementioned photoinhibited 3-cell coculture system protected cells from oxygen glucose deprivation injury. CONCLUSIONS: After ischemic stroke, optogenetic inhibition of GABAergic neurons upregulated bFGF expression by endothelial cells and promoted neurobehavioral recovery, possibly orchestrated by astrocytes. Optogenetically inhibiting neuronal activity provides a novel approach to promote neurological recovery.

Endothelial progenitor cells transplantation attenuated blood-brain barrier damage after ischemia in diabetic mice via HIF-1α.

BACKGROUND: Blood-brain barrier impairment is a major indicator of endothelial dysfunction in diabetes. Studies showed that endothelial progenitor cell (EPC) transplantation promoted angiogenesis and improved function recovery after hind limb ischemia in diabetic mice. The effect of EPC transplantation on blood-brain barrier integrity after cerebral ischemia in diabetic animals is unknown. The aim of this study is to explore the effect of EPC transplantation on the integrity of the blood-brain barrier after cerebral ischemia in diabetic mice. METHODS: EPCs were isolated by density gradient centrifugation and characterized by flow cytometry and immunostaining. Diabetes was induced in adult male C57BL/6 mice by a single injection of streptozotocin at 4 weeks before surgery. Diabetic mice underwent 90-minute transient middle cerebral artery occlusion surgery and received 1 × 106 EPCs transplantation immediately after reperfusion. Brain infarct volume, blood-brain barrier permeability, tight junction protein expression, and hypoxia inducible factor-1α (HIF-1α) mRNA level were examined after treatment. RESULTS: We demonstrated that neurological deficits were attenuated and brain infarct volume was reduced in EPC-transplanted diabetic mice after transient cerebral ischemia compared to the controls (p < 0.05). Blood-brain barrier leakage and tight junction protein degradation were reduced in EPC-transplanted mice (p <0.05). EPCs upregulated HIF-1α expression while HIF-1α inhibitor PX-478 abolished the beneficial effect of EPCs. CONCLUSIONS: We conclude that EPCs protected blood-brain barrier integrity after focal ischemia in diabetic mice through upregulation of HIF-1α signaling.