Hepatitis C: Diagnosis and Management.

Screening recommendations and treatment guidelines for hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection have been updated. People at the greatest risk of HCV infection are those between 18 and 39 years of age and those who use injection drugs. Universal screening with an anti-HCV antibody test with follow-up reflex HCV RNA polymerase chain reaction testing for positive results to confirm active disease is recommended at least once for all adults 18 years and older and during each pregnancy. Any person with ongoing risk factors should be screened periodically as long as the at-risk behavior persists. One-time screening is recommended for patients younger than 18 years with risk factors. For treatment-naive adults without cirrhosis or with compensated cirrhosis, a simplified treatment regimen consisting of eight weeks of glecaprevir/pibrentasvir or 12 weeks of sofosbuvir/velpatasvir results in greater than 95% cure rates. Undetectable HCV RNA 12 weeks after completing therapy is considered a virologic cure (i.e., sustained virologic response). A sustained virologic response is associated with lower all-cause mortality and improves hepatic and extrahepatic manifestations, cognitive function, physical health, work productivity, and quality of life. In patients with compensated cirrhosis, posttreatment surveillance for hepatocellular carcinoma and esophageal varices should include abdominal ultrasonography (with or without alpha fetoprotein) every six months and upper endoscopy every two to three years. In the absence of cirrhosis, no liver-related follow-up is recommended.

Poststreptococcal Illness: Recognition and Management.

Group A beta-hemolytic streptococcus can cause several postinfectious, nonsuppurative immune- mediated diseases including acute rheumatic fever, poststreptococcal reactive arthritis, pediatric autoimmune neuropsychiatric disorders, and poststreptococcal glomerulonephritis. Except for sporadic outbreaks, poststreptococcal autoimmune syndromes occur most commonly in sub-Saharan Africa, India, Australia, and New Zealand. Children younger than three years are rarely affected by group A streptococcus pharyngitis or rheumatic fever, and usually do not require testing. Rheumatic fever is a rare condition that presents as a febrile illness characterized by arthritis, carditis or valvulitis, and neurologic and cutaneous disease, followed many years later by acquired valvular disease. Recurrence rates are high. In addition to evidence of recent streptococcal infection, two major or one major and two minor Jones criteria are required for diagnosis. Electrocardiography, chest radiography, erythrocyte sedimentation rate, and an antistreptolysin O titer are the most useful initial tests. Echocardiography is recommended to identify patients with subclinical carditis. The arthritis usually responds within three days to nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. Poststreptococcal reactive arthritis is nonmigratory, can affect any joint, and typically does not respond to aspirin. Pediatric autoimmune neuropsychiatric disorders affect the basal ganglia and are manifested by obsessive-compulsive and tic disorders. The presentation of poststreptococcal glomerulonephritis ranges from asymptomatic microscopic hematuria to gross hematuria, edema, hypertension, proteinuria, and elevated serum creatinine levels.

Disability evaluations: more than completing a form.

According to the World Health Organization, more than 1 billion persons worldwide have a disability. In the United States, more than 56 million American workers have some form of disability; of these, more than 38 million persons have a severe disability. Blacks and Hispanics are among the groups with the highest disability rates, as well as older patients. Conditions that most often lead to disability include arthritis, back or spine problems, and heart conditions. Common limitations include the inability to walk three city blocks or to climb a flight of stairs. Patients with a disability experience health disparities and barriers to appropriate health care. Disability impacts family members and caregivers, as well as patients. Impairment, disability, and handicap are key terms that physicians must understand to properly evaluate patients and make appropriate recommendations. Social Security Disability Insurance and workers' compensation are the two largest disability programs in the United States. The U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs provides disability benefits for veterans, and private disability insurance may be provided by the employer or purchased by the employee. Family physicians can perform the initial evaluation, consult appropriate subspecialists, complete the necessary paperwork, and answer questions from the patient, employer, or disability agency.

Nonpharmacologic Management of Chronic Insomnia.

Insomnia affects 10% to 30% of the population with a total cost of $92.5 to $107.5 billion annually. Short-term, chronic, and other types of insomnia are the three major categories according to the International Classification of Sleep Disorders, 3rd ed. The criteria for diagnosis are difficulty falling asleep, difficulty staying asleep, or early awakening despite the opportunity for sleep; symptoms must be associated with impaired daytime functioning and occur at least three times per week for at least one month. Factors associated with the onset of insomnia include a personal or family history of insomnia, easy arousability, poor self-reported health, and chronic pain. Insomnia is more common in women, especially following menopause and during late pregnancy, and in older adults. A comprehensive sleep history can confirm the diagnosis. Psychiatric and medical problems, medication use, and substance abuse should be ruled out as contributing factors. Treatment of comorbid conditions alone may not resolve insomnia. Patients with movement disorders (e.g., restless legs syndrome, periodic limb movement disorder), circadian rhythm disorders, or breathing disorders (e.g., obstructive sleep apnea) must be identified and treated appropriately. Chronic insomnia is associated with cognitive difficulties, anxiety and depression, poor work performance, decreased quality of life, and increased risk of cardiovascular disease and all-cause mortality. Insomnia can be treated with nonpharmacologic and pharmacologic therapies. Nonpharmacologic therapies include sleep hygiene, cognitive behavior therapy, relaxation therapy, multicomponent therapy, and paradoxical intention. Referral to a sleep specialist may be considered for refractory cases.

Care of the homeless: an overview.

Homelessness affects men, women, and children of all races and ethnicities. On any given night, more than 610,000 persons in the United States are homeless; a little more than one-third of these are families. Homeless persons are more likely to become ill, have greater hospitalization rates, and are more likely to die at a younger age than the general population. The average life span for a homeless person is between 42 and 52 years. Homeless children are much sicker and have more academic and behavioral problems. Insufficient personal income and the lack of affordable housing are the major reasons for homelessness. Complex, advanced medical problems and psychiatric illnesses, exacerbated by drug and alcohol abuse, in combination with the economic and social issues (such as the lack of housing and proper transportation) make this subset of the population a unique challenge for the health care system, local communities, and the government. An integrated, multidisciplinary health care team with an outreach focus, along with involvement of local and state agencies, seems best suited to address the components needed to ensure quality of care, to help make these patients self-sufficient, and to help them succeed. Family physicians are well suited to manage the needs of the homeless patient, provide continuity of care, and lead these multidisciplinary teams.

How best to manage dysfunctional uterine bleeding.

Irregular or unusually heavy periods are a common complaint. Most often, the condition is benign and can by managed conservatively. Assess postmenopausal women for cancer by endometrial biopsy, transvaginal ultrasound, or saline infusion sonohysterogram. Treat mild dysfunctional uterine bleeding (DUB) with nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, levonorgestrel intrauterine device (IUD), or danazol. Treat moderate DUB with oral contraceptive pills, levonorgestrel IUD, danazol, or tranexamic acid.

Diagnosis and management of adnexal masses.

Adnexal masses represent a spectrum of conditions from gynecologic and nongynecologic sources. They may be benign or malignant. The initial detection and evaluation of an adnexal mass requires a high index of suspicion, a thorough history and physical examination, and careful attention to subtle historical clues. Timely, appropriate laboratory and radiographic studies are required. The most common symptoms reported by women with ovarian cancer are pelvic or abdominal pain; increased abdominal size; bloating; urinary urgency, frequency, or incontinence; early satiety; difficulty eating; and weight loss. These vague symptoms are present for months in up to 93 percent of patients with ovarian cancer. Any of these symptoms occurring daily for more than two weeks, or with failure to respond to appropriate therapy warrant further evaluation. Transvaginal ultrasonography remains the standard for evaluation of adnexal masses. Findings suggestive of malignancy in an adnexal mass include a solid component, thick septations (greater than 2 to 3 mm), bilaterality, Doppler flow to the solid component of the mass, and presence of ascites. Family physicians can manage many nonmalignant adnexal masses; however, prepubescent girls and postmenopausal women with an adnexal mass should be referred to a gynecologist or gynecologic oncologist for further treatment. All women, regardless of menopausal status, should be referred if they have evidence of metastatic disease, ascites, a complex mass, an adnexal mass greater than 10 cm, or any mass that persists longer than 12 weeks.