Varying sex and identity of faces affects face categorization differently in humans and computational models.

Our faces display socially important sex and identity information. How perceptually independent are these facial characteristics? Here, we used a sex categorization task to investigate how changing faces in terms of either their sex or identity affects sex categorization of those faces, whether these manipulations affect sex categorization similarly when the original faces were personally familiar or unknown, and, whether computational models trained for sex classification respond similarly to human observers. Our results show that varying faces along either sex or identity dimension affects their sex categorization. When the sex was swapped (e.g., female faces became male looking, Experiment 1), sex categorization performance was different from that with the original unchanged faces, and significantly more so for people who were familiar with the original faces than those who were not. When the identity of the faces was manipulated by caricaturing or anti-caricaturing them (these manipulations either augment or diminish idiosyncratic facial information, Experiment 2), sex categorization performance to caricatured, original, and anti-caricatured faces increased in that order, independently of face familiarity. Moreover, our face manipulations showed different effects upon computational models trained for sex classification and elicited different patterns of responses in humans and computational models. These results not only support the notion that the sex and identity of faces are processed integratively by human observers but also demonstrate that computational models of face categorization may not capture key characteristics of human face categorization.

Cohort profile: the Men and Parenting Pathways (MAPP) Study: a longitudinal Australian cohort study of men's mental health and well-being at the normative age for first-time fatherhood.

PURPOSE: The Men and Parenting Pathways (MAPP) Study is a prospective investigation of men's mental health and well-being across the normative age for transitioning to fatherhood. This includes trajectories and outcomes for men who do and do not become fathers across five annual waves of the study. PARTICIPANTS: Australian resident, English-speaking men aged 28-32 years at baseline were eligible. Recruitment was over a 2-year period (2015-2017) via social and traditional media and through engagement with study partners. Eight hundred and eighteen eligible men consented to participate. Of these, 664 men completed the first online survey of whom 608 consented to ongoing participation. Of the ongoing sample, 83% have participated in at least two of the first three annual online surveys. FINDINGS TO DATE: Three waves of data collection are complete. The first longitudinal analysis of MAPP data, published in 2020, identified five profiles that characterise men's patterns of depressive symptom severity and presentations of anger. Profiles indicating pronounced anger and depressive symptoms were associated with fathers' lack of perceived social support, and problems with coparenting and bonding with infants. In a second study, MAPP data were combined with three other Australian cohorts in a meta-analysis of associations between fathers' self-reported sleep problems up to 3 years postpartum and symptoms of depression, anxiety and stress. Adjusted meta-analytic associations between paternal sleep and mental health risk ranged from 0.25 to 0.37. FUTURE PLANS: MAPP is an ongoing cohort study. Waves 4 and 5 data will be ready for analyses at the end of 2021. Future investigations will include crossed-lagged and trajectory analyses that assess inter-relatedness and changing social networks, mental health, work and family life. A nested study of COVID-19 pandemic-related mental health and coping will add two further waves of data collection in a subsample of MAPP participants.

Midwives' experiences of father participation in maternity care at a large metropolitan health service in Australia.

OBJECTIVE: Engagement of fathers to participate in pregnancy, birth and early postnatal care has significant advantages for women and infants as well as fathers. In Australia, guidelines for midwifery practice do not include specific recommendations about father-inclusive care, and models for publicly funded maternity care do not extend to the provision of care tailored specifically towards the needs of fathers. This study investigated the perceptions of midwives regarding their role in fathers' wellbeing, the extent of fathers' attendance at and participation in their services, advantages and disadvantages of father participation and barriers and enablers to father engagement. DESIGN: Convergent mixed methods, cross-sectional. SETTING: A large metropolitan public maternity hospital that provides care to some of the most socio-economically disadvantaged suburbs and multi-cultural communities in Melbourne, Australia. PARTICIPANTS: All midwives employed at the hospital (n=196) were invited to participate. METHODS: Anonymous online survey and semi-structured interviews. Descriptive statistics were calculated for quantitative survey responses. Interview data and qualitative survey responses were analysed thematically. FINDINGS: Forty midwives working in all areas of maternity services across the hospital completed surveys, and six participated in interviews. The data illustrate the dilemma faced by midwives in their specific role of supporting women and babies. On the one hand, participants indicated that fathers' wellbeing should be part of their role and named many advantages of father participation in maternity services, including support and advocacy for mothers and bonding with infants. Participants estimated that most fathers attend births and visit their partner and infant on the postnatal ward, 52% attend antenatal appointments and 76% are present at postnatal home visits. Participants reported several midwife strategies and health service factors which facilitate father attendance and active engagement. On the other hand, participants reported several barriers to father engagement, including antenatal appointment schedules which are at odds with fathers' work commitments and the lack of on-site group antenatal education. Some of the barriers they reported are specific to the vulnerable communities for which they provide maternity care. Extraordinary circumstances were reported, including fathers working overseas, fathers in prison, new immigrant status that is often accompanied by a lack of family support to care for other children even during labour and birth, and poor socio-economic status. In addition, in many cultures, pregnancy and birth are seen as "women's work"; fathers would not traditionally be involved. Participants also reported that midwives lack training and confidence in engaging fathers, particularly in responding to fathers with mental health concerns. When providing care for families at risk of family violence, father attendance was perceived a significant disadvantage. KEY CONCLUSIONS: Midwife-provided health services represent a significant opportunity to include and address fathers, and midwives recognise the significant advantages of engaging fathers, unless there is a risk of family violence. However, midwives currently report lack of training and confidence in addressing fathers' needs, and several individual, social, cultural, and health service factors can present barriers to engaging fathers. IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE: Given the substantial benefits of engaging fathers for women and infants, we argue that maternity services should promote father engagement, for example by offering after hours appointment schedules, free antenatal and parenting education, and workshops to upskill midwifery staff. Education regarding the importance of father participation and skills for working with fathers should be included in the undergraduate preparation of midwives and other key maternity care professionals. Addressing the challenges of providing care to a multicultural community requires sensitive discussion with families from each of those cultures.

Paternal coping and psychopathology during the perinatal period: A mixed studies systematic review and meta-analysis.

How fathers cope with stress may be critical to their mental health during the perinatal period. Using a sequential explanatory design for systematic review and meta-analysis, we aimed to identify associations and causal relations between higher- and lower-order avoidant and approach coping strategies and paternal psychopathology. We searched five electronic databases and grey literature, and used random-effects models to calculate pooled effects from 11 quantitative studies. Meta-analytic results were integrated with findings from 18 qualitative studies. Fathers' avoidant coping was positively associated with global psychopathology and depression. Approach-oriented coping, particularly problem-solving, was associated with positive affect but not psychopathology. Qualitative findings indicate distressed fathers employ avoidant coping strategies such as suppression, distraction, and social withdrawal. Approach-oriented coping strategies such as problem-solving and cognitive reappraisals appeared to be constructive components of men's coping repertoires supporting adaptation to fatherhood. Different coping strategies and approaches may reflect enactment of constrictive, moderate, or reinterpreted masculine norms. Study designs did not allow conclusions about causal relations between coping and psychopathology. Screening for, and targeting of, high avoidant coping among expectant and new fathers may help detect men at risk of or experiencing mental health difficulties and inform clinical response to psychopathology. Research examining whether different patterns of avoidant and approach coping are associated with psychopathology over time could inform interventions to support men's mental health and adaptation to fatherhood.

How are you sleeping? Starting the conversation with fathers about their mental health in the early parenting years.

BACKGROUND: Approximately 1 in 10 fathers of infants experience symptoms of common mental health disorders, prompting calls for paternal postpartum screening. However, numerous obstacles exist to screening implementation. The aim of this study was to provide preliminary evidence for an alternative approach that starts with asking fathers about their sleep. METHODS: Using self-reported father data at 0 to 36 months postpartum (N=1204) from four Australian cohort studies, we assessed associations between responses to various single-item questions about sleep (good to poor), and scores on validated measures of mental health (depression, anxiety and stress). We conducted regressions, unadjusted and adjusted for father age, child age, household income, education, first or later child, and marital status, to test associations between sleep and each indicator of mental health. We then meta-analyzed effects and assessed interactions between sleep and each of the covariates. RESULTS: Consistent associations between fathers' subjective poor sleep and depression, anxiety and stress were replicated across the four cohorts despite heterogeneity in the sleep questions. At the meta-analytic level, effects ranged from weak to moderate (0.25 to 0.37) and were robust to all adjustments. Interactions were only detected between family income and poor sleep, such that the association was stronger for high income fathers. LIMITATIONS: This study does not address the sensitivity or specificity of single-item sleep questions for assessing paternal mental health risk. CONCLUSIONS: A low-cost, non-stigmatizing single question to postpartum fathers about their sleep may present a gateway opportunity to enquiring about mental health.

Profiles of Depressive Symptoms and Anger in Men: Associations With Postpartum Family Functioning.

Background: Evidence suggests that men commonly experience depression as feelings of anger; yet, research has not investigated what this means for the manifestation of depressive symptoms in the early years of fatherhood and for key indicators of family functioning. Methods: Using data from a longitudinal cohort study of men at the normative age for entering fatherhood (28-32 years), we conducted latent class analyses to identify patterns of depressive symptoms and 3 sub-types of state anger (feeling; verbal; physical). We then assessed whether class membership was associated with paternity status (n = 535). In a subsample of fathers of infants aged up to 18 months (n = 162), we prospectively assessed associations with paternal-infant bonding, co-parenting, perceived social support, paternal involvement in childcare and alcohol use up to 2 years later. Results: Five classes emerged that differentiated men by anger and depressive symptom severity and by the degree to which men endorsed the feeling of wanting to express anger physically. Compared to the reference class with minimal symptoms, fathers had a higher probability of being in either the mild or most severe symptom classes. Men in symptomatic classes were at higher risk of lower levels of social support, co-parenting problems, and paternal-infant bonds. Class membership was not associated with alcohol use or paternal involvement in childcare. Conclusions: Our results reveal patterns of co-existing symptoms of depression and anger in fathers of infants that will be relevant to men's own need for support, their family safety, partner mental health and child developmental outcomes.

Sleep, mental health and wellbeing among fathers of infants up to one year postpartum: A scoping review.

BACKGROUND: Sleep disturbance among adults has consequences for their health and functioning. Among mothers of infants, there is evidence that fatigue and sleep disturbance are significantly associated with depression, anxiety and impaired relationships with partners and infants. It is not known whether consistent evidence of such associations exists for fathers. PURPOSE: The aim of this review was to describe what is known about fathers' sleep and its associations with mental health and wellbeing, in the first 12 months postpartum. METHODS: A scoping review was conducted, searching MEDLINE complete, Scopus, PsycINFO and CINAHL complete, from 1990 to 13 May 2019. Reference lists of relevant reviews were also searched. Articles were included if they were published in English, and reported on sleep among men cohabiting with their infants from birth to 12 months. FINDINGS: Thirty papers reporting on 27 separate studies met inclusion criteria. Sleep constructs and assessment of these varied greatly. While some measures of fathers' sleep improved, fathers' fatigue increased significantly with increasing infant age. In adjusted analyses, fathers' sleep problems were associated with poorer mental health, relationships with partners, and safety compliance at work. KEY CONCLUSIONS: Health professionals should consider a brief assessment of fathers' sleep when they consult families with young infants. Psycho-education regarding management of poor infant sleep could help to prevent long-term fatigue and its consequences among fathers.

Psychosocial profiles of adolescents from dissolved families: Differences in depressive symptoms in emerging adulthood.

BACKGROUND: When parents separate, on average, children are at greater risk for concurrent and subsequent depression; however, mean outcomes mask substantial variation in depressive risk. This study aimed to (1) identify multivariate risk profiles (classes) in adolescents from separated families and (2) prospectively estimate class risk for depressive symptoms in emerging adulthood. METHODS: The sample comprised 449 participants with separated parents from an Australian population based longitudinal cohort study established in 1983. Classes were explored using 17, theoretically germane, self- and parent-reported indicators of adolescent risk assessed at three points in adolescence (13-14, 15-16 and 17-18 years), spanning three domains of assessment: individual, relational, contextual. Distinct profiles of adolescents were identified using Latent Class Analysis. Class differences on depressive symptoms in emerging adult (19-20 years) were then examined. RESULTS: Three multivariate profiles, differentiated by patterns of risk severity, were observed: Adjusted (n = 253), Moderate Risk (n = 156), and High Risk (n = 40). Compared to the Adjusted class, participants in the Moderate Risk, but not High Risk class had notably elevated depressive symptomatology in emerging adulthood (d = 0.35). In contrast, High Risk class membership in adolescence predicted antisocial behavior in emerging adulthood. LIMITATIONS: Risk for depressive symptoms in emerging adulthood may be under-estimated due to a disproportionate loss of participants from low socio-economic backgrounds. CONCLUSIONS: We found most adolescents from dissolved families to be well-adjusted. Differences between Moderate Risk and High Risk adolescents signal differentiated pathways to subsequent mental health problems. Our findings are relevant for targeted therapeutic strategies for adolescents from dissolved families.

Family dissolution and offspring depression and depressive symptoms: A systematic review of moderation effects.

BACKGROUND: Parental separation is associated with increased risk for offspring depression; however, depression outcomes are divergent. Knowledge of moderators could assist in understanding idiosyncratic outcomes and developing appropriately targeted prevention programs for those at heightened risk of depression following parental separation. Therefore, the objective of the review was to identify and evaluate studies that examined moderators of the relationship between parental separation and offspring depression METHODS: A search of scientific, medical and psychological databases was conducted in April 2015 for longitudinal research that had evaluated any moderator/s of the relationship between parental separation or divorce and offspring depression or depressive symptoms. Papers were assessed for quality by evaluating the study's sample, attrition rates, methodology and measurement characteristics. RESULTS: Fourteen quantitative studies from five countries assessed sixteen moderating factors of the relationship between parental separation and offspring depression or depressive symptoms. A number of factors were found to moderate this relationship, including offspring gender, age (at assessment and at depression onset), genotype, preadolescent temperament, IQ, emotional problems in childhood and maternal sensitivity. LIMITATIONS: While robust longitudinal research was selected for inclusion, common issues with longitudinal studies such as low rates of participation and attrition were among the methodological concerns evident in some of the reviewed papers. CONCLUSIONS: The current review is the first to assess interaction effects of the relationship between parental separation and offspring depression or depressive symptoms. While further research is recommended, this assessment is critical in understanding variation in heterogeneous populations and can inform targeted policy and prevention.

The intergenerational continuity of breastfeeding intention, initiation, and duration: a systematic review.

BACKGROUND: In studies investigating predictors of breastfeeding behaviors, it is not uncommon for researchers to adjust for participants' having been breastfed as an infant. This assumes an intergenerational effect of breastfeeding continuity. Our aim was to investigate the veracity of that assumption. Specifically, we sought to summarize and evaluate evidence of associations between breastfeeding in one generation and breastfeeding intentions and behaviors in the second generation. METHODS: A systematic search of psychological, nursing, and medical databases was conducted for studies examining "having been breastfed" as a factor in breastfeeding intention, initiation, or duration. Quality indicators were assessed and limitations reported. Effects were explored according to outcomes of intention, initiation, and duration. RESULTS: Fifteen papers were found to be eligible for the review. Having been breastfed as an infant was consistently correlated with breastfeeding intention, initiation, and duration. Effect sizes differed depending on methodology. Men's infant-feeding status was also related to later intentions to support or encourage a partner to breastfeed. CONCLUSIONS: Robust evidence for intergenerational breastfeeding continuity is present; however, mechanisms that explain this association were not considered in the studies reviewed and would best be explored within longitudinal cohort studies.