Evaluating the availability of essential drugs for hypertension, diabetes and asthma in rural Rwanda, 2018.

SETTING: Hypertension, diabetes mellitus and asthma are on the rise in developing countries, including Rwanda; there is thus a need to ensure uninterrupted drug availability. OBJECTIVES: To assess 1) the frequency and duration of drug stock-outs; 2) lead time duration 3) monthly stock levels; and 4) drug quantities requested vs. quantity delivered for captopril, metformin and inhaled salbutamol between January and December 2018 Kirehe District, Rwanda. DESIGN: This was a cross-sectional study using secondary programme data. RESULTS: The median annual stock-outs for captopril, metformin and inhaled salbutamol were respectively 4 (IQR 3-4), 3 (IQR 2-3) and 4 (IQR 4-5) at rural health facilities (RHCs); no stock-outs occurred at the district hospital. For all three drugs, the median lead time was 7.5 days (IQR 5.5-11.5) at the hospital vs. 5 days (IQR 3-6) in RHCs. Stock status for captopril was below the 4-week minimum stock level for 2/12 months at the hospital vs. 7/12 months at the RHCs, while metformin and inhaled salbutamol were below the 4-week minimum stock levels for respectively 1/12 and 4/12 months at both hospital and RHCs. Total drug quantities delivered were less than the combined total quantities requested in respectively 8/12, 5/12 and 8/12 months for captopril, metformin and inhaled salbutamol. CONCLUSION: There is a need to regularly and effectively monitor drug stock levels and ensure timely and sufficient stock replenishment to avert stock-outs.

CONTEXTE: L'hypertension, le diabète sucré et l'asthme augmentent progressivement dans les pays en développement, y compris le Rwanda ; il est donc nécessaire d'assurer une disponibilité ininterrompue des médicaments. OBJECTIFS: Évaluer 1) la fréquence et la durée des ruptures de stock de médicaments ; 2) durée du délai d'approvisionnement ; 3) niveaux de stock mensuels ; et 4) quantités de médicaments demandées par rapport aux quantités livrées pour le captopril, la metformine et le salbutamol inhalé ; entre janvier et décembre 2018 dans le district rural de Kirehe, au Rwanda. METHODE: Il s'agissait d'une étude transversale utilisant des données secondaires de programme. RÉSULTATS: Les ruptures de stock annuelles médianes pour le captopril, la metformine et le salbutamol inhalé étaient respectivement de 4 (intervalle interquartile [IQR] 3­4), 3 (IQR 2­3) et 4 (IQR 4­5) dans les Centre de Santé ruraux et aucune rupture de stock n'est survenue à l'hôpital de district. Pour les trois médicaments, le délai d'approvisionnement médian était de 7,5 jours (IQR 5,5­11,5) à l'hôpital contre 5 jours (IQR 3­6) dans les services sanitaires ruraux. L'état des stocks de captopril était inférieur au niveau de stock minimum de 4 semaines pendant 2/12 mois à l'hôpital contre 7/12 mois aux services sanitaires ruraux, tandis que pour la metformine et le salbutamol inhalé ils étaient inférieurs aux niveaux de stock minimum de 4 semaines pour 1/12 et 4/12 mois à l'hôpital et dans les Centre de Santé ruraux, respectivement. Les quantités totales de médicaments livrées étaient inférieures aux quantités totales combinées et demandées en 8/12, 5/12 et 8/12 mois pour le captopril, la metformine et le salbutamol inhalé, respectivement. CONCLUSION: Il est indispensable de surveiller régulièrement et convenablement les niveaux des stocks de médicaments et d'assurer un réapprovisionnement en temps propice et en quantité appropriée pour éviter les ruptures de stock.

Outcomes of cholera and measles outbreak alerts in the Democratic Republic of Congo.

SETTING: In 1995, a rapid response project for humanitarian and medical emergencies, including outbreak responses, named 'Pool d'Urgence Congo' (PUC), was implemented in the Democratic Republic of Congo by Médecins Sans Frontières. OBJECTIVE: To assess the outcomes of cholera and measles outbreak alerts that were received in the PUC surveillance system between 2016 and 2018. DESIGN: This was a retrospective cross-sectional study. RESULTS: Overall, 459 outbreak alerts were detected, respectively 69% and 31% for cholera and measles. Of these, 32% were actively detected and 68% passively detected. Most alerts (90%) required no intervention and 10% of alerts had an intervention. There were 25% investigations that were not carried out despite thresholds being met; 17% interventions were not performed, the main reported reason being PUC operational capacity was exceeded. Confirmed cholera and measles outbreaks that met an investigation threshold comprised respectively 90% and 76% of alerts; 59% of measles investigations were followed by a delayed outbreak response of ⩾14 days (n = 10 outbreaks). CONCLUSION: Some alerts for cholera and measles outbreaks that were detected in the PUC system did not lead to a response even when required; the main reported reason was limited operational capacity to respond to all of them.

Morphobiometrical characteristics of indigenous chicken ecotype populations in Rwanda.

The rational of conservation and sustainable use of indigenous chicken (IC) resources requires their morphobiometrical characterisation. This study morphobiometrically characterised the IC ecotypes in Rwanda. The morphological features and zoometric measurement data were randomly collected on 1670 mature IC of both sexes from five ecotypes of Rwanda. The nonparametric Kruskal-Wallis and Mann-Whitney U test were used in evaluating the effect of ecotypes on the qualitative morphological variables. Zoometric measurements were analysed with the PROC GLM of SAS. The findings showed that the feather morphology and distribution were mainly normal (98.3 and 84.40%, respectively) while feather colour was dominated with multicoloured (38.10%). The majority of the birds had red earlobe (49.20%), yellow shanks (53.80%) and single comb-type (71.70%). These parameters were different (p < 0.05) between the ecotypes. Bodyweight and linear body measurements were highly different (P < 0.001) between ecotypes. Differences associated with sex (P < 0.001) were observed in body weight and linear body measurements. The interaction between ecotype and sex significantly (P < 0.001) influenced body weight, body length, shank length, comb length, comb height, wattle length, chest circumference, neck length and wingspan. The IC ecotypes in Rwanda were found to be diverse morphobiometrically both in quantitative and qualitative traits. These variations provide a foundation for classification of the chicken into breeds.

Weight loss facilitates reduction of left ventricular mass in obese hypertensive patients: The Campania Salute Network.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Reduction of left ventricular mass index (LVMi) during antihypertensive treatment is less likely to occur in obese subjects. The aim of the study was to assess whether weight loss influences reduction of LVMi in treated, obese, hypertensive patients. METHODS AND RESULTS: From the Campania Salute Network registry, we identified 1546 obese hypertensive patients (50 ± 9 years, 43% women) with more than 12 months follow-up. Echocardiographic reduction of LVMi was considered as achievement of normal values (<47 g/m2.7 in women or <50 g/m2.7 in men) or a reduction of ≥10% during follow-up. Weight loss was considered as ≥5% reduction in body weight, and occurred in 403 patients (26%) during a median follow-up of 50 months (IQrange:31-93). Median weight loss was 8.6% (IQrange:6.5-12). Patients with weight loss had higher baseline body mass index (p < 0.05), while there was no difference in age, sex, duration of hypertension, prevalence of diabetes, metabolic syndrome and average blood pressure during follow-up. During follow-up, 152 patients (9.8%) exhibited reduction of LVMi. Reduction of LVMi was more frequent (12.9% vs 9.1%, p < 0.030) in patients losing weight than in those who did not. In logistic regression analysis, weight loss was associated with reduction of left ventricular mass index (OR 1.51 [95%CI 1.02-2.23], p = 0.039), independent of significant associations with younger age, lower average systolic blood pressure during follow-up, longer follow-up time and higher LVMi at baseline. CONCLUSION: In treated obese hypertensive patients, weight loss during follow-up promotes significant reduction of LVMi, independent of baseline characteristics and blood pressure control.

Driving towards malaria elimination in Botswana by 2018: progress on case-based surveillance, 2013-2014.

Background: Reliable information reporting systems ensure that all malaria cases are tested, treated and tracked to avoid further transmission. Botswana aimed to eliminate malaria by 2018, and surveillance is key. This study focused on assessing the uptake of the new malaria case-based surveillance (CBS) system introduced in 2012, which captures information on malaria cases reported in the Integrated Disease Surveillance and Response (IDSR) system. Methods: This was a retrospective descriptive study based on routine data focusing on Ngami, Chobe and Okavango, three high-risk districts in Botswana. Aggregated data variables were extracted from the IDSR and compared with data from the CBS. Results: The IDSR reported 456 malaria cases in 2013 and 1346 in 2014, of which respectively only 305 and 884 were reported by the CBS. The CBS reported 34% fewer cases than the IDSR system, indicating substantial differences between the two systems. The key malaria indicators with the greatest variability among the districts included in the study were case identification number and date of diagnosis. Conclusion: The IDSR and CBS systems are essential for malaria elimination, as shown by the significant gaps in reporting between the two systems. These findings highlight the need for further investigation into these discrepancies. Strengthening the CBS system will help to reach the objective of malaria elimination in Botswana.

Contexte : Un système fiable de reportage des informations assure que tous les cas de paludisme sont testés, traités et suivis pour éviter toute transmission ultérieure. Le Botswana avait visé à éliminer le paludisme pour 2018, et la surveillance est essentielle. Cette étude s'est concentrée sur l'évaluation de la couverture de la nouvelle surveillance basée sur les cas de paludisme (CBS) introduite en 2012, dans laquelle on saisit les informations relatives aux cas de paludisme rapportés au sein du système intégré de surveillance et de réponse aux maladies (IDSR).Méthodes: Une étude rétrospective, descriptive, basée sur des données de routine et concentrée sur les trois districts à risque élevé de Ngami, Chobe et Okavango. Les variables de données agrégées ont été extraites de l'IDSR et comparées aux données de la CBS.Résultats : L'IDSR a rapporté 456 cas de paludisme en 2013 et 1346 en 2014, dont seulement 305 et 884, respectivement, ont été rapportés par la CBS. La CBS a rapporté 34% de cas de moins que l'IDSR, ce qui montre une différence substantielle entre les deux systèmes de déclaration. Les indicateurs clés du paludisme qui ont la plus grande variabilité parmi les districts ont inclus le numéro d'identification des cas et la date du diagnostic.Conclusion : Les systèmes IDSR et CBS sont essentiels pour l'élimination du paludisme, comme le montrent les disparités significatives de la déclaration entre les deux systèmes. Ces résultats sont en faveur d'investigations ultérieures relatives à ces disparités. Le renforcement du système de CBS aidera à assurer la réalisation de l'objectif d'élimination du paludisme au Botswana.

Marco de referencia: Los sistemas fiables de presentación de informes garantizan el examen, el tratamiento y el seguimiento de todos los casos de paludismo con el fin de evitar la transmisión. Botswana busca eliminar el paludismo en el 2018 y la vigilancia representa un aspecto fundamental. En el presente estudio se evaluó la utilización de un nuevo sistema de vigilancia del paludismo basada en los casos (CBS, por Case-Based Surveillance), introducido en el 2012, que capta información sobre los casos de paludismo notificados al sistema Integrado de Vigilancia y Respuesta Sanitaria (IDSR, por Integrated Disease Surveillance and Response).Métodos: Un estudio retrospectivo descriptivo sobre los datos corrientes, con un interés especial en tres distritos de alto riesgo de transmisión, a saber: Ngami, Chobe y Okavango. Los datos agregados de las variables se extrajeron del IDSR y se compararon con los datos del CBS.Resultados: En el 2013, el sistema IDSR notificó 456 casos de paludismo y 1346 en 2014, de los cuales solo 305 y 884, respectivamente, se informaban en el CBS. El sistema CBS notificó 34% menos de casos que el sistema IDSR, lo cual puso de manifiesto diferencias considerables en los mecanismos de presentación de informes. Los indicadores fundamentales del paludismo que exhibieron una mayor variabilidad entre los distritos fueron el número de identificación del caso y la fecha del diagnóstico, en ese orden.Conclusión: Los sistemas IDSR y CBS son primordiales en la eliminación del paludismo, pero presentan deficiencias notables de notificación. Estas observaciones incitan a practicar nuevas investigaciones sobre las discrepancias encontradas. El fortalecimiento del sistema CBS ayudara a garantizar el cumplimiento del objetivo de eliminación del paludismo en Botswana.

Advances in malaria elimination in Botswana: a dramatic shift to parasitological diagnosis, 2008-2014.

Background: Malaria elimination requires infection detection using quality assured diagnostics and appropriate treatment regimens. Although Botswana is moving towards malaria elimination, reports of unconfirmed cases may jeopardise this effort. This study aimed to determine the proportion of cases treated for malaria that were confirmed by rapid diagnostic testing (RDT) and/or microscopy. Methods: This was a retrospective descriptive study using routine national data from the integrated disease surveillance and case-based surveillance systems from 2008 to 2014. The data were categorised into clinical and confirmed cases each year. An analysis of the data on cases registered in three districts that reported approximately 70% of all malaria cases was performed, stratified by year, type of reporting health facilities and diagnostic method. Results: During 2008-2014, 50 487 cases of malaria were reported in Botswana, and the proportion of RDT and/or blood microscopy confirmed cases improved from 6% in 2008 to 89% in 2013. The total number of malaria cases decreased by 97% in the same period, then increased by 41% in 2013. Conclusion: This study shows that malaria diagnostic tests dramatically improved malaria diagnosis and consequently reduced the malaria burden in Botswana. The study identified a need to build capacity on microscopy for species identification, parasite quantification and guiding treatment choices.

Contexte : L'élimination du paludisme requiert la détection des infections grâce à des diagnostics de qualité garantie et à des traitements appropriés. Le Botswana évolue vers l'élimination du paludisme, mais des déclarations de cas non confirmés pourraient compromettre cet effort. Cette étude a visé à déterminer la proportion de cas traités pour paludisme et confirmés par des tests de diagnostic rapide (RDT) et/ou microscopie.Méthodes : Etude rétrospective descriptive qui a utilisé les données nationales de routine des systèmes de surveillance intégrée des maladies et de surveillance basée sur les cas de 2008 à 2014. Les données ont été classées en cas cliniques et confirmés chaque année. Une analyse des données des cas enregistrés dans trois districts déclarant environ 70% des cas de paludisme a été réalisée et stratifiée par année, par type de structure de santé et par méthode de diagnostic.Résultats : En 2008­2014, il y a eu 50 487 cas de paludisme déclarés au Botswana et les cas confirmés par RDT et/ou la microscopie se sont améliorés de 6% en 2008 à 89% en 2013. De plus, le nombre total de cas a chuté de 97% dans la même période, puis est remonté de 41% en 2013.Conclusion : Cette étude a montré que l'utilisation des tests de diagnostic du paludisme avaient considérablement amélioré le diagnostic et avaient par conséquent réduit le fardeau du paludisme au Botswana. L'étude a identifié un besoin de renforcement des capacités en matière de microscopie pour l'identification des espèces et la quantification des parasites et pour guider le choix des traitements.

Marco de referencia: La eliminación del paludismo exige detectar el parasitismo con medios diagnósticos de calidad garantizada y administrar esquemas terapéuticos apropiados. Botswana avanza hacia la eliminación del paludismo, pero los informes de casos no confirmados pueden poner en peligro este esfuerzo. En el presente estudio se determinó la proporción de casos tratados por paludismo, con confirmación diagnóstica mediante pruebas de diagnóstico rápido, examen microscópico o ambos.Métodos: Un estudio retrospectivo descriptivo a partir de los datos corrientes de ámbito nacional de los Sistemas de Vigilancia Integrada de Enfermedades y de Vigilancia Basada en los Casos, del 2008 al 2014. Los datos se categorizaron en casos clínicos y casos confirmados cada año. Se realizó un análisis de datos de los casos registrados en tres distritos que notifican alrededor del 70% de los casos de paludismo, estratificados por año, tipo de establecimiento de salud que notificaba y método diagnóstico.Resultados: Del 2008 al 2014 se notificaron 50 487 casos de paludismo en Botswana y la proporción de casos confirmados mediante pruebas rápidas o examen microscópico de muestras sanguíneas aumentó del 6% en el 2008 al 89% en el 2013. Además, el número total de casos disminuyó un 97% durante el mismo período y luego aumentó de nuevo un 41% en el 2013.Conclusión: El presente estudio puso de manifiesto que las pruebas diagnósticas del paludismo mejoraron de manera notable el diagnóstico y con ello disminuyeron la carga de morbilidad por paludismo en Botswana. El estudio reveló la necesidad de fortalecer la capacidad en materia de microscopia con el fin identificar la especie, cuantificar los parásitos y orientar las opciones terapéuticas.

Did microbial larviciding contribute to a reduction in malaria cases in eastern Botswana in 2012-2013?

Setting: Larviciding has potential as a component of integrated vector management for the reduction of malaria transmission in Botswana by complementing long-lasting insecticide nets and indoor residual sprays. Objective: To evaluate the susceptibility of local Anopheles to commonly used larvicides. Design: This field test of the efficacy of Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. israliensis vs. Anopheles was performed by measuring larval density before treatment and 24 h and 48 h after treatment in seven sites of Bobirwa district, eastern Botswana, in 2012 and 2013. Vector density and malaria cases were compared between Bobirwa and Ngami (northwestern Botswana), with no larviciding in the control arm. Results: Larviciding reduced larval density by 95% in Bobirwa in 2012, with two cases of malaria, while in 2013 larval density reduction was 81%, with 11 cases. Adult mosquito density was zero for both years in Robelela village (Bobirwa), compared to respectively four and 26 adult mosquitoes per room in Shorobe village (Ngami) in 2012 and 2013. There were no cases of malaria in Robelela in either year, but in Shorobe there were 20 and 70 cases, respectively, in 2012 and 2013. Conclusion: Larviciding can reduce the larval density of mosquitoes and reduce malaria transmission in Botswana. Large-scale, targeted implementation of larviciding in districts at high risk for malaria is recommended.

Contexte : Les opérations larvicides ont, en tant qu'élément de la gestion intégrée des vecteurs, le potentiel de réduire la transmission du paludisme au Botswana en complétant les moustiquaires imprégnées d'insecticide rémanent et la pulvérisation d'insecticide a effet rémanent. Objectif : Evaluer la sensibilité des Anophèles locaux aux larvicides généralement utilisés.Schéma : Le test de terrain de l'efficacité du Bacillus thuringiensis sous-espèce israeliensis a été réalisé vis-à-vis d'Anopheles en mesurant la densité larvaire avant traitement et 24 h et 48 h après traitement dans sept sites du district de Bobirwa (est du Botswana) en 2012 et 2013. La densité vectorielle et les cas de paludisme ont été comparés à Bobirwa et à Ngami (nord-ouest du Botswana), le district témoin sans opérations larvicides.Résultats : Les opérations larvicides ont réduit la densité larvaire de 95%, avec deux cas en 2012, tandis qu'en 2013 la réduction de la densité larvaire a été de 81%, avec 11 cas à Bobirwa. La densité de moustiques adultes a été de zéro pour les deux années dans le village de Robelela (Bobirwa), comparé à quatre et à 26 adultes par pièce dans le village de Shorobe (Ngami) en 2012 et 2013, respectivement. Il n'y a pas eu de cas de paludisme à Robelela au cours des deux années, mais respectivement 20 et 70 cas sont survenus à Shorobe en 2012 et 2013.Conclusion: Les opérations larvicides peuvent réduire la densité larvaire des moustiques et réduire la transmission du paludisme au Botswana. La mise en œuvre à grande échelle et ciblée d'opérations larvicides dans les districts à haut risque de paludisme est recommandée.

Marco de referencia: La aplicación de larvicidas podría convertirse en un componente del plan integrado de control de los vectores destinado a disminuir la transmisión del paludismo en Botswana, que complemente la utilización de mosquiteros impregnados de insecticidas de larga duración y la fumigación de interiores con insecticidas de acción residual.Objetivo: Evaluar la susceptibilidad de los anófeles locales a los larvicidas más utilizados.Método: Se llevó a cabo un ensayo sobre el terreno de la eficacia de Bacillus thuringiensis subespecie israliensis contra el género Anopheles, mediante la medición de la densidad larvaria antes del tratamiento y 24 h y 48 h después del mismo, en siete lugares del distrito de Bobirwa (Botswana oriental) en el 2012 y el 2013. Se compararon la densidad del vector y los casos de paludismo en Bobirwa y en Ngami (Botswana nororiental), que constituyó la rama testigo del estudio sin tratamiento larvicida.Resultados: La aplicación del larvicida en Bobirwa disminuyó un 95% la densidad larvaria y se presentaron dos casos de paludismo en el 2012, pero en el 2013 esta disminución fue del 81% y se presentaron 11 casos. La densidad de mosquitos adultos fue cero en ambos años en la localidad de Robelela (Bobirwa), en comparación con cuatro a 26 adultos por pieza en Shorobe (Ngami) en el 2012 y el 2013, respectivamente. No se presentaron casos de paludismo en Robelela en estos dos años, pero en Shorobe ocurrieron 20 casos en el 2012 y 70 en el 2013.Conclusión: La aplicación de larvicidas puede disminuir la densidad de mosquitos y la transmisión del paludismo en Botswana. Se recomienda una aplicación de larvicida dirigida en gran escala en los distritos con alto riesgo de transmisión de paludismo.

Single blind, multicentre, randomized, controlled trial testing the effects of a novel nutraceutical compound on plasma lipid and cardiovascular risk factors: Results of the interim analysis.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: The clustering of high levels of LDL cholesterol (LDL-C) and other risk factors represents a predisposing condition for atherosclerotic disease development. Cardiovascular prevention is based on effective control of these conditions. In adult subjects with mild hypercholesterolemia we compared in the real life the effects of a new combination of nutraceuticals on lipid and glucose metabolism and blood pressure with those of an established nutraceutical combination. METHOD AND RESULTS: This multicenter, controlled, randomized, single-blind trial was designed to compare the effect of Armolipid Plus® versus that of LopiGLIK® on lipid and glucose levels and blood pressure (BP) in subjects with mild hypercholesterolemia not on statin therapy. Primary outcome was the proportion of subjects achieving therapeutic targets of LDL-C (<130 mg/dl); secondary outcomes were the effects on HDL-C, glycated haemoglobin and insulin levels. Data from an overall sample of 359 adult individuals (age 55.2 ± 11.1 years, women 57.7%, LDL-C 157.3 ± 22.6 mg/dl, HDL-C 50.7 ± 13.0 mg/dl) are reported. 72% of subjects treated with LopiGLIK® and 43% treated with Armolipid Plus® achieved the primary endpoint (p < 0.0001). Both treatments reduced plasma levels of total and LDL-C and triglycerides (p < 0.001 for all comparisons). The treatments also reduced systolic and diastolic blood pressure, plasma levels of glycated haemoglobin, insulin and HOMA index. The changes induced by LopiGLIK® in all these metabolic parameters were greater than those obtained with Armolipid Plus®. CONCLUSIONS: The present analysis shows that LopiGLIK® may represent a more effective tool for clinical management of CV risk factors in subjects with mild hypercholesterolemia.

How do low-birthweight neonates fare 2 years after discharge from a low-technology neonatal care unit in a rural district hospital in Burundi?

OBJECTIVES: As neonatal care is being scaled up in economically poor settings, there is a need to know more on post-hospital discharge and longer-term outcomes. Of particular interest are mortality, prevalence of developmental impairments and malnutrition, all known to be worse in low-birthweight neonates (LBW, <2500 g). Getting a better handle on these parameters might justify and guide support interventions. Two years after hospital discharge, we thus assessed: mortality, developmental impairments and nutritional status of LBW children. METHODS: Household survey of LBW neonates discharged from a neonatal special care unit in Rural Burundi between January and December 2012. RESULTS: Of 146 LBW neonates, 23% could not be traced and 4% had died. Of the remaining 107 children (median age = 27 months), at least one developmental impairment was found in 27%, with 8% having at least five impairments. Main impairments included delays in motor development (17%) and in learning and speech (12%). Compared to LBW children (n = 100), very-low-birthweight (VLBW, <1500 g, n = 7) children had a significantly higher risk of impairments (intellectual - P = 0.001), needing constant supervision and creating a household burden (P = 0.009). Of all children (n-107), 18% were acutely malnourished, with a 3½ times higher risk in VLBWs (P = 0.02). CONCLUSIONS: Reassuringly, most children were thriving 2 years after discharge. However, malnutrition was prevalent and one in three manifested developmental impairments (particularly VLBWs) echoing the need for support programmes. A considerable proportion of children could not be traced, and this emphasises the need for follow-up systems post-discharge.

Emergency obstetric care in a rural district of Burundi: What are the surgical needs?

OBJECTIVES: In a rural district hospital in Burundi offering Emergency Obstetric care-(EmOC), we assessed the a) characteristics of women at risk of, or with an obstetric complication and their types b) the number and type of obstetric surgical procedures and anaesthesia performed c) human resource cadres who performed surgery and anaesthesia and d) hospital exit outcomes. METHODS: A retrospective analysis of EmOC data (2011 and 2012). RESULTS: A total of 6084 women were referred for EmOC of whom 2534(42%) underwent a major surgical procedure while 1345(22%) required a minor procedure (36% women did not require any surgical procedure). All cases with uterine rupture(73) and extra-uterine pregnancy(10) and the majority with pre-uterine rupture and foetal distress required major surgery. The two most prevalent conditions requiring a minor surgical procedure were abortions (61%) and normal delivery (34%). A total of 2544 major procedures were performed on 2534 admitted individuals. Of these, 1650(65%) required spinal and 578(23%) required general anaesthesia; 2341(92%) procedures were performed by 'general practitioners with surgical skills' and in 2451(96%) cases, anaesthesia was provided by nurses. Of 2534 hospital admissions related to major procedures, 2467(97%) were discharged, 21(0.8%) were referred to tertiary care and 2(0.1%) died. CONCLUSION: Overall, the obstetric surgical volume in rural Burundi is high with nearly six out of ten referrals requiring surgical intervention. Nonetheless, good quality care could be achieved by trained, non-specialist staff. The post-2015 development agenda needs to take this into consideration if it is to make progress towards reducing maternal mortality in Africa.

Effect of diabetes and metabolic syndrome on myocardial mechano-energetic efficiency in hypertensive patients. The Campania Salute Network.

Reduced myocardial mechano-energetic efficiency (MEE), estimated as stroke volume/heart rate ratio per g of left ventricular (LV) mass (LVM), and expressed in µl s-1 g-1 (MEEi), is a strong predictor of cardiovascular (CV) events, independently of LV hypertrophy and other confounders, including type II diabetes (DM). Decreased MEEi is more frequent in patients with diabetes. In the present analysis we evaluated the interrelation among MEEi, DM and metabolic syndrome (MetS) in the setting of arterial hypertension. Hypertensive patients from the Campania Salute Network, free of prevalent CV disease and with ejection fraction >50% (n=12 503), were analysed. Coexistence of MetS and DM was ordinally categorized into 4 groups: 8235 patients with neither MetS nor DM (MetS-/DM-); 502 without MetS and with DM (MetS-/DM+); 3045 with MetS and without DM (MetS+/DM-); and 721 with MetS and DM (MetS+/DM+). After controlling for sex, systolic blood pressure, body mass index, relative wall thickness (RWT), antihypertensive medications and type of antidiabetic therapy, MEEi was 333 µl s-1 g-1 in MetS-/DM-, 328 in MetS-/DM+, 326 in MetS+/DM- and 319 in MetS+/DM+ (P for trend <0.0001). In pairwise comparisons (Sidak-adjusted), all conditions, except MetS-/DM+, were significantly different from MetS-/DM- (all P<0.02). No statistical difference was detected between MetS-/DM+ and MetS+/DM-. Both MetS and DM are associated with decreased MEEi in hypertensive patients, independently to each other, but the reduction is statistically less evident for MetS-/DM+. MetS+/DM+ patients have the lowest levels of MEEi, consistent with the alterations of energy supply associated with the combination of insulin resistance with insulin deficiency.

Short communication: Outbreak of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA)-associated mastitis in a closed dairy herd.

Cows are probably the main source of contamination of raw milk with Staphylococcus aureus. Mammary glands with subclinical mastitis can shed large numbers of Staph. aureus in milk. Because of the risk of this pathogen to human health as well as animal health, the aim of this paper was to describe an outbreak of mastitis caused by methicillin-resistant Staph. aureus (MRSA), oxacillin-susceptible mecA-positive Staph. aureus (OS-MRSA), and methicillin-susceptible Staph. aureus (MSSA) on a dairy farm. Milk samples were obtained from all quarters, showing an elevated somatic cell count by the California Mastitis Test. The isolates were identified by phenotypic and genotypic methods. Staphylococcus spp. were isolated from 53% (61/115) of the milk samples, with 60 isolates identified as Staph. aureus (98.4%) and 1 isolate identified as Staphylococcus epidermidis (1.6%). The presence of the mecA gene was verified in 48.3% of Staph. aureus isolates. Of the Staph. aureus isolates, 23.3% were MRSA and 25.0% were OS-MRSA. The total of mastitis cases infected with MRSA was 12.2%. The detection of this large percentage of mastitis cases caused by MRSA and OS-MRSA is of great concern for the animals' health, because ß-lactams are still the most important antimicrobials used to treat mastitis. In addition, Staph. aureus isolates causing bovine mastitis represent a public health risk.

Sparks creating light? Strengthening peripheral disease surveillance in the Democratic Republic of Congo.

SETTING: The Democratic Republic of Congo suffers from an amalgam of disease outbreaks and other medical emergencies. An efficient response to these relies strongly on the national surveillance system. The Pool d'Urgence Congo (PUC, Congo Emergency Team) of Médecins Sans Frontières is a project that responds to emergencies in highly remote areas through short-term vertical interventions, during which it uses the opportunity of its presence to reinforce the local surveillance system. OBJECTIVE: To investigate whether the ancillary strengthening of the peripheral surveillance system during short-term interventions leads to improved disease notification. DESIGN: A descriptive paired study measuring disease notification before and after 12 PUC interventions in 2013-2014. RESULTS: A significant increase in disease notification was observed after seven mass-vaccination campaigns and was sustained over 6 months. For the remaining five smaller-scaled interventions, no significant effects were observed. CONCLUSION: The observed improvements after even short-term interventions underline, on the one hand, how external emergency actors can positively affect the system through their punctuated actions, and, on the other hand, the dire need for investment in surveillance at peripheral level.

Contexte : La République Démocratique du Congo souffre d'un amalgame de flambées épidémiques et d'autres urgences médicales. Une réponse efficace à ces problèmes est basée sur le système national de surveillance. Le Pool d'Urgence Congo (PUC) de Médecins Sans Frontières est un projet répondant aux urgences dans les zones très reculées grâce à des interventions verticales à court terme, pendant lesquelles le projet met à profit l'opportunité de sa présence pour renforcer le système de surveillance local.Objectif : Vérifier si le renforcement complémentaire du système de surveillance périphérique pendant des interventions à court terme amène une amélioration de la notification des maladies.Schéma : Une étude descriptive par paires mesurant la notification des maladies avant et après 12 interventions PUC en 2013­2014.Résultats : Une augmentation significative de la notification des maladies a été observée après sept campagnes de vaccination de masse et elle s'est maintenue pendant 6 mois. En ce qui concerne les cinq interventions restantes à plus petite échelle, aucun effet significatif n'a été observé.Conclusion : Les améliorations observées, même après des interventions à court terme, soulignent d'un côté comment des acteurs externes de l'urgence peuvent affecter positivement le système à travers leurs actions ponctuelles et, d'un autre côté, le besoin pressant d'investir dans la surveillance au niveau périphérique.

Marco de referencia: La República Democrática del Congo adolece de una amalgama de brotes epidémicos y otras urgencias médicas y la eficiencia de la respuesta a esta situación depende en gran medida del sistema nacional de vigilancia. El proyecto 'Pool d'Urgence Congo' (PUC, en francés) de Médecins Sans Frontières responde a las situaciones de urgencia en zonas muy remotas, mediante intervenciones verticales a corto plazo, durante las cuales se aprovecha la presencia en el terreno con el fin de reforzar el sistema local de vigilancia sanitaria.Objetivo: Investigar si el fortalecimiento complementario del sistema periférico de vigilancia sanitaria durante las intervenciones de corta duración contribuye a mejorar la notificación de las enfermedades.Método: Un estudio descriptivo emparejado, en el cual se midió la notificación de las enfermedades antes y después de 12 intervenciones del PUC del 2013 al 2014.Resultados: Se observó un aumento estadísticamente significativo de la notificación de las enfermedades después de siete campañas de vacunación colectiva, el cual se mantuvo durante 6 meses. En las cinco intervenciones restantes de menor escala no se observaron efectos considerables.Conclusión: El progreso observado incluso después de intervenciones a corto plazo, por una parte, pone de manifiesto que los actores externos en situaciones de emergencia pueden inducir modificaciones positivas del sistema mediante sus actividades puntuales y, en segundo lugar, destaca la necesidad urgente de invertir en el sistema de vigilancia sanitaria a nivel periférico.

Caesarean sections in rural Burundi: how well are mothers doing two years on?

SETTING: A caesarean section (C-section) is a life-saving emergency intervention. Avoiding pregnancies for at least 24 months after a C-section is important to prevent uterine rupture and maternal death. OBJECTIVES: Two years following an emergency C-section, in rural Burundi, we assessed complications and maternal death during the post-natal period, uptake and compliance with family planning, subsequent pregnancies and their maternal and neonatal outcomes. METHODS: A household survey among women who underwent C-sections. RESULTS: Of 156 women who underwent a C-section, 116 (74%) were traced; 1 had died of cholera, 8 had migrated and 31 were untraceable. Of the 116 traced, there were no post-operative complications and no deaths. At hospital discharge, 83 (72%) women accepted family planning. At 24 months after hospital discharge (n = 116), 23 (20%) had delivered and 17 (15%) were pregnant. Of the remaining 76 women, 48 (63%) were not on family planning. The main reasons for this were religion or husband's non-agreement. Of the 23 women who delivered, there was one uterine rupture, no maternal deaths and three stillbirths. CONCLUSIONS: Despite encouraging maternal outcomes, this study raises concerns around the effectiveness of current approaches to promote and sustain family planning for a minimum of 24 months following a C-section. Innovative ways of promoting family planning in this vulnerable group are urgently needed.

Contexte : Une césarienne est une intervention d'urgence destinée à sauver une vie. Eviter une nouvelle grossesse pendant au moins 24 mois après une césarienne est important afin de prévenir une rupture utérine et un décès maternel.Objectifs : Deux ans après une césarienne en urgence, dans le Burundi rural, nous avons évalué : les complications et les décès maternels pendant la période post-natale ; la couverture de la planification familiale et son adhérence ; les grossesses suivantes et leur devenir pour la mère et le nouveau-né.Méthodes : Enquête à domicile auprès de femmes qui ont bénéficié d'une césarienne.Résultat : Sur 156 femmes qui ont bénéficié d'une césarienne, 116 (74%) ont pu être retrouvées ; 1 était décédée du choléra, 8 avaient déménagé et 31 n'ont pas pu être localisées. Sur les 116 femmes retrouvées, il n'y a eu aucune complication post-opératoire et aucun décès. Lors de leur sortie de l'hôpital, 83 (72%) femmes ont accepté une contraception. A 24 mois après leur sortie (n = 116), 23 (20%) avaient accouché et 17 (15%) étaient enceintes. Sur les 76 femmes restantes, 48 (63%) n'avaient pas de contraception. Les motifs principaux étaient la religion ou le désaccord du mari. Parmi les 23 qui avaient accouché, il y a eu une rupture utérine, aucun décès maternel, mais il y a eu trois mort-nés.Conclusion : En dépit de résultats encourageants pour les mères, cette étude pose la question de l'efficacité des approches actuelles de la promotion et de la pérennité de la planification familiale pendant un minimum de 24 mois. Il est urgent de trouver des manières innovantes de promouvoir la planification familiale dans ce groupe vulnérable.

Marco de referencia: La cesárea es una intervención de urgencia que salva vidas. Es importante evitar un embarazo por lo menos durante los 24 meses que siguen a la operación, con el fin de evitar la ruptura uterina y la mortalidad materna.Objetivos: El seguimiento durante 2 años después de una cesárea de urgencia en una zona rural de Burundi tuvo por objeto evaluar las complicaciones y la mortalidad materna durante el período posnatal, la aceptación y el cumplimiento del método de anticoncepción y examinar los siguientes embarazos con su desenlace materno y neonatal.Método: Se llevó a cabo una encuesta domiciliaria de las mujeres en quienes se había practicado una cesárea.Resultados: Se evaluaron 116 de las 156 mujeres (74%) que se sometieron a una cesárea; una paciente falleció por cólera, 8 migraron y fue imposible localizar 31 mujeres. Durante el seguimiento de las 116 mujeres no se observaron complicaciones postoperatorias ni defunciones. En el momento del alta hospitalaria, 83 mujeres aceptaron practicar un método anticonceptivo (72%). Veinticuatro meses después del alta hospitalaria, 23 mujeres habían tenido un parto (20%) y 17 estaban embarazadas (15%). De las 76 mujeres restantes, 48 no seguían ningún método de planificación familiar (63%); las principales razones aducidas fueron religiosas o el desacuerdo del cónyuge. En los 23 casos de mujeres que tuvieron un parto, ocurrió una ruptura uterina sin mortalidad materna, pero hubo tres mortinatos.Conclusión: Pese a la buena perspectiva de los desenlaces maternos favorables, el estudio pone de manifiesto inquietudes con respecto a la eficacia de las estrategias vigentes de promoción y mantenimiento de los métodos anticonceptivos durante un mínimo de 24 meses. Se precisan con urgencia estrategias innovadoras que estimulen la planificación familiar en este grupo vulnerable de mujeres.

High mortality in tuberculosis patients despite HIV interventions in Swaziland.

SETTING: All health facilities providing tuberculosis (TB) care in Swaziland. OBJECTIVE: To describe the impact of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) interventions on the trend of TB treatment outcomes during 2010-2013 in Swaziland; and to describe the evolution in TB case notification, the uptake of HIV testing, antiretroviral therapy (ART) and cotrimoxazole preventive therapy (CPT), and the proportion of TB-HIV co-infected patients with adverse treatment outcomes, including mortality, loss to follow-up and treatment failure. DESIGN: A retrospective descriptive study using aggregated national TB programme data. RESULTS: Between 2010 and 2013, TB case notifications in Swaziland decreased by 40%, HIV testing increased from 86% to 96%, CPT uptake increased from 93% to 99% and ART uptake among TB patients increased from 35% to 75%. The TB-HIV co-infection rate remained around 70% and the proportion of TB-HIV cases with adverse outcomes decreased from 36% to 30%. Mortality remained high, at 14-16%, over the study period, and anti-tuberculosis treatment failure rates were stable over time (<5%). CONCLUSION: Despite high CPT and ART uptake in TB-HIV patients, mortality remained high. Further studies are required to better define high-risk patient groups, understand the reasons for death and design appropriate interventions.

Contexte : Toutes les structures de santé offrant une prise en charge de la tuberculose (TB) au Swaziland.Objectif : Décrire l'impact des interventions pour le virus de l'immunodéficience humaine (VIH) sur les tendances des résultats du traitement de la TB en 2010­2013, au Swaziland. Décrire l'évolution de la notification des cas de TB, la couverture du test VIH, de le traitement antirétroviral (TAR) et du traitement préventif au cotrimoxazole (CPT) et la proportion de patients coinfectées par TB-VIH avec les mauvais résultats du traitement incluant la mortalité, les abandons et les échecs du traitement.Schéma : Etude descriptive rétrospective basée sur les données agrégées du programme national TB.Résultats : Entre 2010 et 2013, les notifications de cas de TB auSwaziland ont diminué de 40%, le test VIH a augmenté de 86% à 96%, la couverture du CPT a augmenté de 93% à 99% et la couverture du TAR parmi les patients tuberculeux est passée de 35% à 75%. Le taux de coinfection TB-VIH est resté autour de 70% et la proportion de cas de TB-VIH avec des résultats médiocres a diminué de 36% à 30% entre 2010 et 2013. La mortalité est restée élevée entre 14% et 16% pendant la période d'étude et les taux d'échec du traitement TB ont été stables dans le temps (<5%).Conclusion : En dépit d'une couverture élevée du CPT et du TAR parmi les patients TB-VIH, la mortalité est restée élevée. D'autres études sont nécessaires pour mieux définir les groupes de patients à haut risque, pour mieux comprendre les causes de décès et pour concevoir des interventions appropriées.

Marco de referencia: Todos los establecimientos de salud que prestan atención antituberculosa en Swasilandia.Objetivo: Describir la repercusión de las intervenciones contra el virus de la inmunodeficiencia humana (VIH) sobre la evolución de los desenlaces terapéuticos de la tuberculosis (TB) del 2010 al 2013 en Swasilandia. Describir la evolución de la notificación de casos de TB, la aceptación de la prueba diagnóstica del VIH, el tratamiento antirretrovírico (TAR) y del tratamiento preventivo con cotrimoxazol (CPT) y la proporción de pacientes coinfectados por el VIH y el bacilo de la TB que presenta desenlaces terapéuticos desfavorables como la mortalidad, la pérdida durante el seguimiento y el fracaso del tratamiento.Método: Fue este un estudio descriptivo retrospectivo a partir de los datos agregados del Programa Nacional contra la TB.Resultados: Del 2010 al 2013, la notificación de casos de TB en Swasilandia disminuyó un 40%, la aceptación de la prueba diagnóstica del VIH aumentó de 86% a 96%, la utilización del CPT aumentó del 93% al 99% y en los pacientes con TB, y la aceptación del TAR aumentó del 35% al 75%. La tasa de coinfección permaneció alrededor del 70% y la proporción de estos pacientes que presentaba desenlaces desfavorables disminuyó del 36% en el 2010 al 30% en el 2013. Durante el período del estudio la mortalidad permaneció alta, entre el 14% y 16%, y las tasas de fracaso del tratamiento antituberculoso permanecieron estables con el transcurso del tiempo (menos del 5%).Conclusión: Pese a una alta aceptación del CPT y el TAR por parte de los pacientes coinfectados por el VIH y la TB, la mortalidad sigue siendo alta. Se precisan nuevos estudios que definan con mayor precisión los grupos de pacientes con alto riesgo de desenlaces desfavorables y que contribuyan a comprender las causas de las defunciones y a diseñar intervenciones apropiadas.

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus of lineage ST398 as cause of mastitis in cows.

UNLABELLED: The objective of this study was to analyse the prevalence and molecular characteristics of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in milk of cows with mastitis. The California mastitis test (CMT) was used to detect the presence of mastitis in all 100 cows of a farm in Brazil. The CMT was positive in milk of 115 mammary quarters from 36 cows (36%). MRSA isolates were recovered from 4 of these 36 cows with mastitis (11%), and they were further characterized (one MRSA/sample). The four MRSA isolates were typed as t011-ST398-agr1-SCCmecV and presented two different pulsed-field-gel-electrophoresis-ApaI patterns. These four MRSA isolates showed resistance to tetracycline, streptomycin and ciprofloxacin, carried the mecA, blaZ, tet(K), and tet(M) resistance genes, and presented the S84L and S80F amino acid substitutions in GyrA and GrlA proteins, respectively. Two ST398 isolates exhibited resistance to gentamicin and tobramycin [with aac(6)-aph(2") and ant(4)-Ia genes] and one isolate resistance to clindamycin [with lnu(B) and lsa(E) genes]; this latter isolate also carried the spectinomycin/streptomycin resistance genes spw and aadE. MRSA of lineage ST398 is worldwide spread, normally multidrug resistant and may be responsible for bovine mastitis. To our knowledge, this is the first detection of MRSA-ST398 in Brazil. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: Few studies on the epidemiology of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) from bovine isolates have been performed in Brazil. MRSA of lineage ST398 is worldwide spread and associated with farm animals. Multidrug-resistant MRSA-ST398 isolates were recovered in 11% of mastitic cows from a single farm, with one isolate carrying the unusual lsa(E), spw and aadE genes. To our knowledge, this is the first detection of MRSA-ST398 isolates in milk samples of cows with mastitis in Brazil.

Treatment of peripheral arterial disease in diabetes: a consensus of the Italian Societies of Diabetes (SID, AMD), Radiology (SIRM) and Vascular Endovascular Surgery (SICVE).

Diabetic foot (DF) is a chronic and highly disabling complication of diabetes. The prevalence of peripheral arterial disease (PAD) is high in diabetic patients and, associated or not with peripheral neuropathy (PN), can be found in 50% of cases of DF. It is worth pointing out that the number of major amputations in diabetic patients is still very high. Many PAD diabetic patients are not revascularised due to lack of technical expertise or, even worse, negative beliefs because of poor experience. This despite the progress obtained in the techniques of distal revascularisation that nowadays allow to reopen distal arteries of the leg and foot. Italy has one of the lowest prevalence rates of major amputations in Europe, and has a long tradition in the field of limb salvage by means of an aggressive approach in debridement, antibiotic therapy and distal revascularisation. Therefore, we believe it is appropriate to produce a consensus document concerning the treatment of PAD and limb salvage in diabetic patients, based on the Italian experience in this field, to share with the scientific community.

Performance of decentralised facilities in tuberculosis case notification and treatment success in Armenia.

We assessed the performance of decentralised tuberculosis (TB) out-patient centres in tuberculosis (TB) case notification and treatment success in Armenia. An average threshold case notification of ⩾37/100 000 was seen in centres that had higher numbers of presumptive TB patients, where more TB was diagnosed by in-patient facilities and where TB contacts were examined. The number of doctors and/or TB specialists at centres did not influence case notification. Onsite smear microscopy was significantly associated with a treatment success rate of ⩾85% for new TB patients. Addressing specific characteristics of TB centres associated with lower case notification and treatment success and optimising their location may improve performance.

Pattern of primary tuberculosis drug resistance and associated treatment outcomes in Transnistria, Moldova.

This cohort study assessed drug susceptibility testing (DST) patterns and associated treatment outcomes from Transnistria, Moldova, from 2009 to 2012. Of 1089 newly registered tuberculosis (TB) patients with available DST results, 556 (51%) had some form of drug resistance, while 369 (34%) had multidrug-resistant TB (MDR-TB). There were four cases of extensively drug-resistant TB. MDR-TB patients had poor treatment success (45%); human immunodeficiency virus positivity and a history of incarceration were associated with an unfavourable treatment outcome. This first study from Trans-nistria shows a high level of drug-resistant TB, which constitutes a major public health problem requiring urgent attention.