ABSTRACT
Cemetery waste (CW) constitutes one of the streams of municipal waste (MW). Based on the available data, it can be said that it accounts for about 1% of the mass of MW being generated in Poland. CW management should be carried out selectively. It is estimated that the level of CW selective collection is lower than the average level achieved for MW. This paper presents some solutions concerning the selective collection of CW implemented in selected municipal and denominational cemeteries in Poland. Based on research conducted, the levels of proper separation of glass and biodegradable waste in containers for their selective collection were determined, accordingly as >85% and >80%. Due to the contamination with paraffin residues, the purity of the selectively collected plastic fraction was lower than 20%. The human factor was recognized as the most significant determining efficiency of the selective collection of CW. Therefore, further education of society, as well as promoting good practices in the field of CW management, should be regarded as desirable.
Subject(s)
Refuse Disposal , Waste Management , Cemeteries , Cities , Humans , Plastics , Poland , Recycling , Solid Waste/analysisABSTRACT
BACKGROUND: Leaching of nutrients from agricultural areas is the main cause of water pollution and eutrophication of the Baltic Sea. A variety of remedial actions to reduce nitrogen and phosphorus losses from agricultural holdings and cultivated fields have been taken in the past. However, knowledge about the risk of nutrient leaching has not yet reached many farmers operating in the water catchment area of the Baltic Sea. METHODS: The nutrient balance method known as "At the farm gate" involves calculating separate balances for nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium (K). After estimating all the components of the nutrient balance, the total balance for NPK is calculated and the data obtained is expressed as the ratio of total change (surplus) to the area of arable land on a farm. In addition, the nutrient usage efficiency on a farm is also calculated. An opinion poll was conducted in 2017 on 3.6% (n = 31) of the farms located in commune of Puck. The total area of the farms including arable and grass land ranged from 5 to 130 ha with an average of 45.82 ha. The arable land was on average 30.79 ha ranging from 4.45 to 130 ha while the grassland averaged 12.77 ha and ranged from 0 to 53 ha. RESULTS: The average consumption of mineral fertilizer in the sample population of farms was 114.9 kg N, 9.3 kg P, and 22.9 kg K·ha-1of agricultural land (AL), respectively. N balance in the sample farms being ranged from -23.3 to 254.5 kg N·ha-1AL while nutrient use efficiency ranged from 0.40% to 231.3%. In comparison, P surplus in the sample farms was 5.0 kg P·ha-1AL with the P use efficiency of 0.4-266.5%. DISCUSSION: Mean N fertilizer consumption in the tested farms was higher than the average usage across Poland and in the Pomeranian Voivodeship. However, mean consumption of potassium fertilizers was lower than mentioned averages. Mean P fertilizer consumption was higher than in the Pomeranian Voivodeship, but lower compared to the entire country. Generally, on the basis of designated research indicators of farm pressures on water quality, concentrations of total nitrogen and total phosphorus were obtained. CalcGosPuck (an integrated agriculture calculator) will help to raise farmers' awareness about NPK flow on farm scale and to improve nutrient management.
ABSTRACT
Raw primary sewage sludge (Wastewater Treatment Plant of Krotoszyn, SW Poland) and its mixtures with 3%d, 6%d, 9%d, 12%d and 24%d of calcium hydroxide were stabilised for 1 and 35 days. Changes of the sludge physicochemical properties and molecular composition, caused by alkaline agent in course of stabilisation process, are recognised. A basic physicochemical data on the sludge cake and filtrate after 1 and 35 days of stabilisation process are given. Soxhlet extracts from the sludge cakes stabilised for 35 days as well pyrolysis and pyrolysis in situ methylation (using tetramethylammonium hydroxide-TMAH) products of respective pre-extracted cake residues were analysed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Increase of calcium hydroxide concentration in the sludge mixture causes enhanced ammonia release, preferential hydrolyses of fats and proteins from the sludge macromolecular network and transformation of free fatty acids contained in the sludge lipids, as well as these released hydrolytically, to their calcium salts. The sewage sludge stabilisation with calcium hydroxide has no effect on homological assemblage and content of unbound stanol and sterol compounds in the sludge lipids and these bound into macromolecular network. Biogenic n-alkanes and anthropogenic linear alkylbenzenes were detected as minor components in the lipids and pyrolytic products from the pre-extracted cake residue, respectively. The alkaline agent used for the sludge stabilisation accelerates equilibration of the process and reduces content of pathogenic microorganisms.
