Chronic methamphetamine exposure prior to middle cerebral artery occlusion increases infarct volume and worsens cognitive injury in Male mice.

Emerging evidence indicates that methamphetamine (MA) abuse can impact cardiovascular disease. In humans, MA abuse is associated with an increased risk of stroke as well as an earlier age at which the stroke occurs. However, little is known about how chronic daily MA exposure can impact ischemic outcome in either humans or animal models. In the present study, mice were injected with MA (10 mg/kg, i.p.) or saline once daily for 10 consecutive days. Twenty-four hours after the final injection, mice were subjected to transient middle cerebral artery occlusion (tMCAO) for one hour followed by reperfusion. Mice were tested for novel object memory at 96 h post-reperfusion, just prior to removal of brains for quantification of infarct volume using 2,3,5-Triphenyltetrazolium Chloride (TTC) staining. Mice treated with MA prior to tMCAO showed decreased object memory recognition and increased infarct volume compared to saline-treated mice. These findings indicate that chronic MA exposure can worsen both cognitive and morphological outcomes following cerebral ischemia.

Local changes in neurosteroid levels in the substantia nigra reticulata and the ventral tegmental area alter chronic ethanol withdrawal severity in male withdrawal seizure-prone mice.

BACKGROUND: Allopregnanolone (ALLO) is a potent positive modulator of γ-aminobutyric acidA receptors (GABAA Rs) that affects ethanol (EtOH) withdrawal. Finasteride (FIN), a 5α-reductase inhibitor that blocks the formation of ALLO and other GABAergic neurosteroids, alters EtOH sensitivity. Recently, we found that Withdrawal Seizure-Prone mice from the first genetic replicate (WSP-1) exhibited behavioral tolerance to the anticonvulsant effect of intrahippocampal ALLO during EtOH withdrawal and that intrahippocampal FIN significantly increased EtOH withdrawal severity. The purpose of this study was to determine whether neurosteroid manipulations in the substantia nigra reticulata (SNR) and ventral tegmental area (VTA) produced effects during EtOH withdrawal comparable to those seen with intrahippocampal ALLO and FIN. METHODS: Male WSP-1 mice were surgically implanted with bilateral guide cannulae aimed at the SNR or VTA at 2 weeks prior to EtOH vapor or air exposure for 72 hours. Initial studies examined the anticonvulsant effect of a single ALLO infusion (0, 100, or 400 ng/side) at a time corresponding to peak withdrawal in the air- and EtOH-exposed mice. Separate studies examined the effect of 4 FIN infusions (0 or 10 µg/side/d) during the development of physical dependence on the expression of EtOH withdrawal. RESULTS: ALLO infusion exerted a potent anticonvulsant effect in EtOH-naïve mice, but a diminished anticonvulsant effect during EtOH withdrawal. Administration of FIN into the SNR exerted a delayed proconvulsant effect in EtOH-naïve mice, whereas infusion into the VTA increased EtOH withdrawal duration. CONCLUSIONS: Activation of local GABAA Rs in the SNR and VTA via ALLO infusion is sufficient to exert an anticonvulsant effect in naïve mice and to produce behavioral tolerance to the anticonvulsant effect of ALLO infusion during EtOH withdrawal. Thus, EtOH withdrawal reduced sensitivity of GABAA Rs to GABAergic neurosteroids in 2 neuroanatomical substrates within the basal ganglia in WSP-1 male mice.

A genetic animal model of differential sensitivity to methamphetamine reinforcement.

Sensitivity to reinforcement from methamphetamine (MA) likely influences risk for MA addiction, and genetic differences are one source of individual variation. Generation of two sets of selectively bred mouse lines for high and low MA drinking has shown that genetic factors influence MA intake, and pronounced differences in sensitivity to rewarding and aversive effects of MA play a significant role. Further validation of these lines as a unique genetic model relevant to MA addiction was obtained using operant methods to study MA reinforcement. High and low MA drinking line mice were used to test the hypotheses that: 1) oral and intracerebroventricular (ICV) MA serve as behavioral reinforcers, and 2) MA exhibits greater reinforcing efficacy in high than low MA drinking mice. Operant responses resulted in access to an MA or non-MA drinking tube or intracranial delivery of MA. Behavioral activation consequent to orally consumed MA was determined. MA available for consumption maintained higher levels of reinforced instrumental responding in high than low MA drinking line mice, and MA intake in the oral operant procedure was greater in high than low MA drinking line mice. Behavioral activation was associated with amount of MA consumed during operant sessions. High line mice delivered more MA via ICV infusion than did low line mice across a range of doses. Thus, genetic risk factors play a critical role in the reinforcing efficacy of MA and the oral self-administration procedure is suitable for delineating genetic contributions to MA reinforcement.

Acetylcholine from the mesopontine tegmental nuclei differentially affects methamphetamine induced locomotor activity and neurotransmitter levels in the mesolimbic pathway.

Methamphetamine (MA) increases dopamine (DA) levels within the mesolimbic pathway and acetylcholine (ACh), a neurotransmitter known to increase DA cell firing and release and mediate reinforcement, within the ventral tegmental area (VTA). The laterodorsal tegmental (LDT) and pedunculopontine tegmental (PPT) nuclei provide cholinergic input to the VTA; however, the contribution of LDT- and PPT-derived ACh to MA-induced DA and ACh levels and locomotor activation remains unknown. The first experiment examined the role of LDT-derived ACh in MA locomotor activation by reversibly inhibiting these neurons with bilateral intra-LDT microinjections of the M2 receptor agonist oxotremorine (OXO). Male C57BL/6J mice were given a bilateral 0.1µl OXO (0, 1, or 10nM/side) microinjection immediately prior to IP saline or MA (2mg/kg). The highest OXO concentration significantly inhibited both saline- and MA-primed locomotor activity. In a second set of experiments we characterized the individual contributions of ACh originating in the LDT or pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus (PPT) to MA-induced levels of ACh and DA by administering intra-LDT or PPT OXO and performing in vivo microdialysis in the VTA and NAc. Intra-LDT OXO dose-dependently attenuated the MA-induced increase in ACh within the VTA but had no effect on DA in NAc. Intra-PPT OXO had no effect on ACh or DA levels within the VTA or NAc, respectively. We conclude that LDT, but not PPT, ACh is important in locomotor behavior and the cholinergic, but not dopaminergic, response to systemic MA.

Dissociation of corticotropin-releasing factor receptor subtype involvement in sensitivity to locomotor effects of methamphetamine and cocaine.

RATIONALE: Enhanced sensitivity to the euphoric and locomotor-activating effects of psychostimulants may influence an individual's predisposition to drug abuse and addiction. While drug-induced behaviors are mediated by the actions of several neurotransmitter systems, past research revealed that the corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) system is important in driving the acute locomotor response to psychostimulants. OBJECTIVES: We previously reported that genetic deletion of the CRF type-2 receptor (CRF-R2), but not the CRF type-1 receptor (CRF-R1) dampened the acute locomotor stimulant response to methamphetamine (1 mg/kg). These results contrasted with previous studies implicating CRF-R1 in the locomotor effects of psychostimulants. Since the majority of previous studies focused on cocaine, rather than methamphetamine, we set out to test the hypothesis that these drugs differentially engage CRF-R1 and CRF-R2. METHODS: We expanded our earlier findings by first replicating our previous experiments at a higher dose of methamphetamine (2 mg/kg), and by assessing the effects of the CRF-R1-selective antagonist CP-376,395 (10 mg/kg) on methamphetamine-induced locomotor activity. Next, we used both genetic and pharmacological tools to examine the specific components of the CRF system underlying the acute locomotor response to cocaine (5-10 mg/kg). RESULTS: While genetic deletion of CRF-R2 dampened the locomotor response to methamphetamine (but not cocaine), genetic deletion and pharmacological blockade of CRF-R1 dampened the locomotor response to cocaine (but not methamphetamine). CONCLUSIONS: These findings highlight the differential involvement of CRF receptors in acute sensitivity to two different stimulant drugs of abuse, providing an intriguing basis for the development of more targeted therapeutics for psychostimulant addiction.

Cholinergic modulation of mesolimbic dopamine function and reward.

The substantial health risk posed by obesity and compulsive drug use has compelled a serious research effort to identify the neurobiological substrates that underlie the development these pathological conditions. Despite substantial progress, an understanding of the neurochemical systems that mediate the motivational aspects of drug-seeking and craving remains incomplete. Important work from the laboratory of Bart Hoebel has provided key information on neurochemical systems that interact with dopamine (DA) as potentially important components in both the development of addiction and the expression of compulsive behaviors such as binge eating. One such modulatory system appears to be cholinergic pathways that interact with DA systems at all levels of the reward circuit. Cholinergic cells in the pons project to DA-rich cell body regions in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) and substantial nigra (SN) where they modulate the activity of dopaminergic neurons and reward processing. The DA terminal region of the nucleus accumbens (NAc) contains a small but particularly important group of cholinergic interneurons, which have extensive dendritic arbors that make synapses with a vast majority of NAc neurons and afferents. Together with acetylcholine (ACh) input onto DA cell bodies, cholinergic systems could serve a vital role in gating information flow concerning the motivational value of stimuli through the mesolimbic system. In this report we highlight evidence that CNS cholinergic systems play a pivotal role in behaviors that are motivated by both natural and drug rewards. We argue that the search for underlying neurochemical substrates of compulsive behaviors, as well as attempts to identify potential pharmacotherapeutic targets to combat them, must include a consideration of central cholinergic systems.

Conditioned taste aversion from neostigmine or methyl-naloxonium in the nucleus accumbens.

An opioid antagonist injected in the nucleus accumbens of a morphine-dependent rat will lower extracellular dopamine and release acetylcholine (ACh), as also seen in opiate withdrawal. It was hypothesized that raising extracellular ACh experimentally would be aversive as reflected by the induction of a conditioned taste aversion. Rats were implanted with cannulas aimed above the nucleus accumbens (NAc) for injection of the opiate antagonist methyl-naloxonium in morphine-dependent animals or neostigmine to increase ACh in drug naïve animals. Experiment 1 in addicted rats showed that local morphine withdrawal by local injection of methyl-naloxonium paired with the taste of saccharin induces a conditioned taste aversion. Experiment 2 in non-addicted rats demonstrated the same learned aversion after local administration of the cholinergic agonist neostigmine in the NAc. These results suggest that ACh released in the NAc during opiate withdrawal contributes to the dysphoric, aversive state characteristic of withdrawal. This accumbens system is implicated in the mechanism for generating the memory of an aversive event that is expressed as learned taste aversion.

The influence of selection for ethanol withdrawal severity on traits associated with ethanol self-administration and reinforcement.

BACKGROUND: Several meta-analyses indicate that there is an inverse genetic correlation between ethanol preference drinking and ethanol withdrawal severity, but limited work has characterized ethanol consumption in 1 genetic animal model, the Withdrawal Seizure-Prone (WSP) and-Resistant (WSR) mouse lines selected for severe or mild ethanol withdrawal, respectively. METHODS: We determined whether line differences existed in: (i) operant self-administration of ethanol during sucrose fading and under different schedules of reinforcement, followed by extinction and reinstatement of responding with conditioned cues and (ii) home cage drinking of sweetened ethanol and the development of an alcohol deprivation effect (ADE). RESULTS: Withdrawal Seizure-Prone-1 mice consumed more ethanol than WSR-1 mice under a fixed ratio (FR)-4 schedule as ethanol was faded into the sucrose solution, but this line difference dissipated as the sucrose was faded out to yield an unadulterated 10% v/v ethanol solution. In contrast, WSR-1 mice consumed more ethanol than WSP-1 mice when a schedule was imposed that procedurally separated appetitive and consummatory behaviors. After both lines achieved the extinction criterion, reinstatement was serially evaluated following oral ethanol priming, light cue presentation, and a combination of the 2 cues. The light cue produced maximal reinstatement of responding in WSP-1 mice, whereas the combined cue was required to produce maximal reinstatement of responding in WSR-1 mice. There was no line difference in the home cage consumption of a sweetened ethanol solution over a period of 1 month. Following a 2-week period of abstinence, neither line developed an ADE. CONCLUSIONS: Although some line differences in ethanol self-administration and reinstatement were identified between WSP-1 and WSR-1 mice, the absence of consistent divergence suggests that the genes underlying these behaviors do not reliably overlap with those that govern withdrawal severity.

The influence of mecamylamine on ethanol and sucrose self-administration.

Neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) are believed to be critically involved in ethanol-related behaviors as well as in neurochemical responses to ethanol. However, discernment of nAChR contribution to ethanol reinforcement and consumption remains incomplete. The current studies examined the influence of the nAChR antagonist mecamylamine (MEC) on operant ethanol self-administration using a procedure that independently assessed appetitive and consumptive processes, and compared these findings to effects of MEC on sucrose self-administration. Male C57BL/6J (B6) mice were trained to respond for 30-min access to a retractable drinking tube containing either 10% v/v ethanol (10E) or 5% w/v sucrose (5S). Once trained, mice were habituated to saline injection and then treated with a series of MEC doses (0-8 mg/kg; i.p.) in a within-subject design. In a separate cohort, MEC was evaluated for its influence on locomotor activity. MEC dose-dependently reduced 10E and 5S self-administration. The suppression in ethanol intake was attributable to a reduction in bout frequency, whereas the attenuation in sucrose intake was due to a decrease in bout size. Doses of MEC (6-8 mg/kg) that altered drinking patterns were also found to impair locomotor activity. Although MEC non-selectively reduced 10E and 5S intakes in mice, there was some specificity in alterations of the underlying drinking pattern for each reinforcer. Assessment of drinking topography within an operant self-administration procedure may provide useful insights regarding the role of nAChR function in the regulation of ethanol consumption.

CRF enhancement of GIRK channel-mediated transmission in dopamine neurons.

Dopamine neurons in the ventral midbrain contribute to learning and memory of natural and drug-related rewards. Corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF), a stress-related peptide, is thought to be involved in aspects of relapse following drug withdrawal, but the cellular actions are poorly understood. This study investigates the action of CRF on G-protein-linked inhibitory postsynaptic currents (IPSCs) mediated by GIRK (Kir3) channels in dopamine neurons. CRF enhanced the amplitude and slowed the kinetics of IPSCs following activation of D2-dopamine and GABA(B) receptors. This action was postsynaptic and dependent on the CRF(1) receptor. The enhancement induced by CRF was attenuated by repeated in vivo exposures to psychostimulants or restraint stress. The results indicate that CRF influences dopamine- and GABA-mediated inhibition in the midbrain, suggesting implications for the chronic actions of psychostimulants and stress on dopamine-mediated behaviors.

The neurosteroid environment in the hippocampus exerts bi-directional effects on seizure susceptibility in mice.

The progesterone derivative allopregnanolone (ALLO) rapidly potentiates gamma-aminobutyric acid(A) (GABA(A)) receptor mediated inhibition. The present studies determined whether specific manipulation of neurosteroid levels in the hippocampus would alter seizure susceptibility in an animal model genetically susceptible to severe ethanol (EtOH) withdrawal, Withdrawal Seizure-Prone (WSP) mice. Male WSP mice were surgically implanted with bilateral guide cannulae aimed at the CA1 region of the hippocampus one week prior to measuring seizure susceptibility to the convulsant pentylenetetrazol (PTZ), given via timed tail vein infusion. Bilateral intra-hippocampal infusion of ALLO (0.1 microg/side) was anticonvulsant, increasing the threshold dose of PTZ for onset to myoclonic twitch and face and forelimb clonus by 2- to 3-fold. In contrast, infusion of the 5 alpha-reductase inhibitor finasteride (FIN; 2 microg/side), which decreases endogenous ALLO levels, exhibited a proconvulsant effect. During withdrawal from chronic EtOH exposure, WSP mice were tolerant to the anticonvulsant effect of intra-hippocampal ALLO infusion, consistent with published results following systemic injection. Finally, administration of intra-hippocampal FIN given only during the development of physical dependence significantly increased EtOH withdrawal severity, measured by handling-induced convulsions. These findings are the first demonstration that bi-directional manipulation of hippocampal ALLO levels produces opposite behavioral consequences that are consistent with alterations in GABAergic inhibitory tone in drug-naive mice. Importantly, EtOH withdrawal rendered WSP mice less sensitive to ALLO's anticonvulsant effect and more sensitive to FIN's proconvulsant effect, suggesting an alteration in the sensitivity of hippocampal GABA(A) receptors in response to fluctuations in GABAergic neurosteroids during ethanol withdrawal.

Reinstatement of ethanol and sucrose seeking by the neurosteroid allopregnanolone in C57BL/6 mice.

RATIONALE: Recent work in our laboratory documented that the "sipper" method of operant ethanol self-administration produced high ethanol intake and blood ethanol concentrations as well as the typical extinction "burst" in responding under nonreinforced conditions in male C57BL/6 mice. However, the neurochemical basis for reinstatement of responding following extinction has not been examined in mice with this model. OBJECTIVES: Based on findings that the GABAergic neurosteroid allopregnanolone (ALLO) significantly increased the consummatory phase of ethanol self-administration, the present study determined the effect of ALLO on the reinstatement of extinguished ethanol-seeking behavior and compared this effect to the reinstatement of responding for sucrose reward. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Separate groups of male C57BL/6 mice were trained to lever press for access to a 10% ethanol (10E) or a 5% sucrose (5S) solution. A single response requirement of 16 presses (RR16) on an active lever resulted in 30 min of continuous access to the 10E or 5S solution. After the animals responded on the RR16 schedule for 14 weeks, mice were exposed to 30 min extinction sessions where responding had no scheduled consequence. Once responding stabilized below the preextinction baseline, mice received an intraperitoneal injection of ALLO (0, 3.2, 5.6, 10, or 17 mg/kg) 15 min prior to the extinction session in a within-subjects design. RESULTS: ALLO produced a dose-dependent increase in responding under nonreinforced conditions in both the 10E and 5S groups. Additional work documented the ability of a conditioned cue light or a compound cue (light+lever retraction) to reinstate nonreinforced responding on the previously active lever. CONCLUSIONS: These findings definitively show that conditioned cues and priming with ALLO are potent stimuli for reinstating both ethanol- and sucrose-seeking behavior in C57BL/6 mice.

Activated cholinergic signaling provides a target in squamous cell lung carcinoma.

The binding of exogenous nicotine to nicotinic acetylcholine (ACh) receptors (nAChR) and the binding of endogenous ACh to both nAChR and muscarinic ACh receptors (mAChR) stimulate growth of both small cell and non-small cell lung carcinomas. Understanding how cholinergic signaling is up-regulated in lung cancer may suggest new therapeutic approaches. Analysis of 28 squamous cell lung carcinomas (SCC) showed increased levels of alpha5 and beta3 nAChR mRNA and increased levels of ACh associated with increased levels of choline acetyltransferase mRNA and decreased cholinesterase mRNAs. Lynx1, an allosteric inhibitor of nAChR activity, was also decreased in SCC. Thus, cholinergic signaling is broadly increased in SCC caused by increased levels of receptors, increased levels of ligands, and decreased levels of receptor inhibitors. Partially explaining the cholinergic up-regulation seen in SCC, incubation of the H520 SCC cell line with nicotine increased levels of ACh secretion, increased expression of nAChR, and, as measured by electrophysiologic recording, increased activity of the expressed nAChR. Consistent with these effects, nicotine stimulated proliferation of H520 cells. One approach to blocking proliferative effects of nicotine and ACh on growth of lung cancers may be through M3 mAChR antagonists, which can limit the activation of mitogen-activated protein kinase that is caused by both nicotinic and muscarinic signaling. This was tested with the M3-selective muscarinic antagonist darifenacin. Darifenacin blocked nicotine-stimulated H520 growth in vitro and also blocked H520 growth in nude mice in vivo. Thus, cholinergic signaling is broadly up-regulated in SCC and blocking cholinergic signaling can limit basal and nicotine-stimulated growth of SCC.

Injection of CART (cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript) peptide into the nucleus accumbens reduces cocaine self-administration in rats.

Cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript (CART) peptides appear to modulate various effects of psychostimulant drugs. Injections of CART peptide into the nucleus accumbens (NAcc) inhibit locomotion produced by systemic injections of the psychostimulants cocaine and amphetamine. Intra-NAcc injections of CART peptide also inhibit locomotion produced by microinfusions of dopamine into the NAcc, suggesting that the effects of CART peptides may be due to an interaction with the dopaminergic system in the NAcc. We sought to determine if this inhibitory effect of CART peptide generalizes to other measures of dopaminergic function such as reward/reinforcement by testing the effect of bilateral intra-NAcc CART infusions (0, 0.25, 1.0 and 2.5 microg per side) on cocaine and food self-administration. One group of rats self-administered cocaine (0.75 mg/kg per 140 microl IV infusion) on a progressive ratio schedule. A separate group received 45 mg food pellets on the same progressive ratio schedule. Bilateral intra-NAcc injections of CART peptide dose-dependently decreased the number of cocaine infusions, the breakpoint of cocaine self-administration, and the total number of bar presses on the cocaine-associated lever. There were no effects of CART injections on the breakpoint for food reward. Thus, we conclude that injections of CART into the NAcc appear to functionally antagonize a major site of action for cocaine self-administration in rats.

Decreased vesicular somatodendritic dopamine stores in leptin-deficient mice.

An increasing number of studies indicate that leptin can regulate the activity of the mesolimbic dopamine system. The objective of this study was to examine the regulation of the activity of dopamine neurons by leptin. This was accomplished by examining the dopamine D2 receptor-mediated synaptic current that resulted from somatodendritic release of dopamine in brain slices taken from mice that lacked leptin (Lep(ob/ob) mice). Under control conditions, the amplitude and kinetics of the IPSC in wild-type and Lep(ob/ob) mice were not different. However, in the presence of forskolin or cocaine, the facilitation of the dopamine IPSC was significantly reduced in Lep(ob/ob) mice. The application of L-3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (L-DOPA) increased the IPSC in Lep(ob/ob) mice significantly more than in wild-type animals and fully restored the responses to both forskolin and cocaine. Treatment of Lep(ob/ob) mice with leptin in vivo fully restored the cocaine-induced increase in the IPSC to wild-type levels. These results suggest that there is a decrease in the content of somatodendritic vesicular dopamine in the Lep(ob/ob) mice. The release of dopamine from terminals may be less affected in the Lep(ob/ob) mice, because the cocaine-induced rise in dopamine in the ventral striatum was not statistically different between wild-type and Lep(ob/ob) mice. In addition, the relative increase in cocaine-induced locomotion was similar for wild-type and Lep(ob/ob) mice. These results indicate that, although basal release is not altered, the amount of dopamine that can be released is reduced in Lep(ob/ob) mice.

The nicotinic acetylcholine receptor antagonist mecamylamine prevents escalation of cocaine self-administration in rats with extended daily access.

RATIONALE: Escalation from moderate to excessive drug intake is a hallmark of human addiction that can be modeled in rats by giving them longer daily access time to self-administer cocaine. Nicotine and cocaine are commonly coabused drugs in humans and recent work in animals suggests that activation of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChR) can increase cocaine self-administration. OBJECTIVES: Determine the role of nAChR in the escalation of cocaine self-administration. METHODS: Control rats self-administered cocaine (0.75 mg/kg/infusion) for either 1 or 6 h per day. Experimental groups had the nAChR antagonist mecamylamine (MEC) added to the cocaine solution for 5 days after the transition from short (1 h per day) to long access (6 h per day) for cocaine self-administration. After 5 days, MEC was removed from the cocaine solution. RESULTS: Control rats and rats that received a low dose of MEC (7 microg/infusion) with cocaine increased their average hourly intake over 5 days of 6 h per day cocaine access. Rats that received a higher dose of MEC (70 microg/infusion) did not increase their intake of cocaine during 6 h access but continued to self-administer cocaine. When MEC was removed, this group showed an escalation in cocaine self-administration. MEC did not alter cocaine intake in a group that had continuous 1 h access. CONCLUSIONS: Antagonism of nAChRs during the initial exposure to extended cocaine self-administration access time prevented escalation of, but did not eliminate, drug intake. These findings indicate that MEC-sensitive nAChRs are critical for determining cocaine intake as a function of longer access time.

Influence of reinforcement schedule on ethanol consumption patterns in non-food restricted male C57BL/6J mice.

Ethanol reinforcement should ideally be evaluated in animals that are not food deprived to ensure that the motivation behind its consumption is pharmacological, and not caloric, in nature. The objective of this work was to assess the influence of reinforcement schedule on ethanol intake in nondeprived mice. Male C57BL/6J mice were trained to respond on an ethanol-reinforced lever on a fixed ratio 4 reinforcement schedule for 10% ethanol (10E). The appetitive and consummatory phases were then procedurally separated by changing the response requirement (RR), so that mice were permitted 30-min continuous 10E access after completion of either four (RR4) or eight (RR8) responses. Phase separation yielded a heightened appetitive drive to acquire 10E access (as indexed by a significant decrease in the latency to first active lever and a trend toward a decrease in the latency to first sipper contact) and an augmented level of drinking (twofold elevation in the ethanol dose consumed). Robust extinction responding on the ethanol-appropriate lever indicated that ethanol was effective as a behavioral reinforcer. These results suggest that the separation of appetitive and consummatory phases of ethanol self-administration may prove useful in future evaluations of the pharmacological and genetic bases of ethanol reinforcement in mice.

M3 muscarinic receptor antagonists inhibit small cell lung carcinoma growth and mitogen-activated protein kinase phosphorylation induced by acetylcholine secretion.

The importance of acetylcholine as a neurotransmitter in the nervous system is well established, but little is yet known about its recently described role as an autocrine and paracrine hormone in a wide variety of nonneuronal cells. Consistent with the expression of acetylcholine in normal lung, small cell lung carcinoma (SCLC) synthesize and secrete acetylcholine, which acts as an autocrine growth factor through both nicotinic and muscarinic cholinergic mechanisms. The purpose of this study was to determine if interruption of autocrine muscarinic cholinergic signaling has potential to inhibit SCLC growth. Muscarinic receptor (mAChR) agonists caused concentration-dependent increases in intracellular calcium and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) and Akt phosphorylation in SCLC cell lines. The inhibitory potency of mAChR subtype-selective antagonists and small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) on acetylcholine-increased intracellular calcium and MAPK and Akt phosphorylation was consistent with mediation by M3 mAChR (M3R). Consistent with autocrine acetylcholine secretion stimulating MAPK and Akt phosphorylation, M3R antagonists and M3R siRNAs alone also caused a decrease in basal levels of MAPK and Akt phosphorylation in SCLC cell lines. Treatment of SCLC cells with M3R antagonists inhibited cell growth both in vitro and in vivo and also decreased MAPK phosphorylation in tumors in nude mice in vivo. Immunohistochemical staining of SCLC and additional cancer types showed frequent coexpression of acetylcholine and M3R. These findings suggest that M3R antagonists may be useful adjuvants for treatment of SCLC and, potentially, other cancers.

Allopregnanolone influences the consummatory processes that govern ethanol drinking in C57BL/6J mice.

Although systemic allopregnanolone (ALLO; a positive modulator of GABA(A) receptors) has been shown to enhance ethanol-reinforced responding and to modulate drinking patterns in rodents, the effects of centrally administered ALLO on ethanol intake are not known. The current work examined the effects of intracranial ALLO on operant ethanol self-administration in food- and water-satiated mice, with a procedure designed to estimate ALLO's influence on appetitive versus consummatory processes. Male C57BL/6J (B6) mice were trained to press an ethanol-appropriate lever by being reinforced with 30-min of continuous access to a 10% ethanol solution. Following surgical implantation of a guide cannula aimed at the lateral ventricle and subsequent habituation to vehicle infusions, ALLO (50-400 ng; ICV) was delivered immediately prior to session start. ALLO doses of 100 and 400 ng were further evaluated for their effects on locomotor behavior within activity chambers. ALLO selectively modulated ethanol intake patterns associated with the onset and maintenance of self-administration, while leaving appetitive (i.e., ethanol seeking) measures unaltered. The effects of ALLO on drinking patterns were dissociable from changes in locomotor behavior, as evidenced by the absence of ALLO's influence on response frequency and horizontal distance traveled. These findings support the premise that manipulations in brain ALLO levels may influence the regulatory processes governing ethanol consumption.

Injection of oxotremorine in nucleus accumbens shell reduces cocaine but not food self-administration in rats.

Mesencephalic dopamine neurons form synapses with acetylcholine (ACh)-containing interneurons in the nucleus accumbens (NAcc). Although their involvement in drug reward has not been systematically investigated, these large aspiny interneurons may serve an important integrative function. We previously found that repeated activation of nicotinic cholinergic receptors enhanced cocaine intake in rats but the role of muscarinic receptors in drug reward is less clear. Here we examined the impact of local changes in muscarinic receptor activation within the NAcc on cocaine and food self-administration in rats trained on a progressive ratio (PR) schedule of reinforcement. Animals were given a minimum of 9 continuous days of drug access before testing in order to establish a stable breaking point (BP) for intravenous cocaine infusions (0.75 mg/kg/infusion). Rats in the food group acquired stable responding on the PR schedule within 7 days. On the test day, rats were bilaterally infused in the NAcc with the muscarinic receptor agonist oxotremorine methiodide (OXO: 0.1, 0.3 or 1 nmol/side), OXO plus the M(1) selective antagonist pirenzepine (PIRENZ; 0.3 nmol/side) or aCSF 15 min before cocaine or food access. OXO dose dependently reduced BP values for cocaine reinforcement (-17%, -44% [p<0.05] and -91% [p<0.0001] for 0.1, 0.3 and 1.0 nmol, respectively) and these reductions dissipated by the following session. Pretreatment with PIRENZ blocked the BP-reducing effect of 0.3 nmol OXO. Notably, OXO (0.1, 0.3 and 1.0 nmol/side) injection in the NAcc did not affect BP for food reward. The results suggest that muscarinic ACh receptors in the caudomedial NAcc may play a role in mediating the behavior reinforcing effects of cocaine.